Initial import of qemu-2.4.1HEADmaster

5 files changed, 10531 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/libdecnumber/decContext.c b/libdecnumber/decContext.c
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8b6ae21b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libdecnumber/decContext.c
@@ -0,0 +1,433 @@
+/* Decimal context module for the decNumber C Library.
+   Copyright (C) 2005, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+   Contributed by IBM Corporation.  Author Mike Cowlishaw.
+
+   This file is part of GCC.
+
+   GCC is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under
+   the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free
+   Software Foundation; either version 2, or (at your option) any later
+   version.
+
+   In addition to the permissions in the GNU General Public License,
+   the Free Software Foundation gives you unlimited permission to link
+   the compiled version of this file into combinations with other
+   programs, and to distribute those combinations without any
+   restriction coming from the use of this file.  (The General Public
+   License restrictions do apply in other respects; for example, they
+   cover modification of the file, and distribution when not linked
+   into a combine executable.)
+
+   GCC is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY
+   WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or
+   FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU General Public License
+   for more details.
+
+   You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+   along with GCC; see the file COPYING.  If not, write to the Free
+   Software Foundation, 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA
+   02110-1301, USA.  */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Decimal Context module					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This module comprises the routines for handling arithmetic	      */
+/* context structures.						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+
+#include <string.h>	      /* for strcmp */
+#include <stdio.h>	      /* for printf if DECCHECK */
+#include "libdecnumber/dconfig.h"
+#include "libdecnumber/decContext.h"
+#include "libdecnumber/decNumberLocal.h"
+
+#if DECCHECK
+/* compile-time endian tester [assumes sizeof(Int)>1] */
+static	const  Int mfcone=1;		     /* constant 1 */
+static	const  Flag *mfctop=(Flag *)&mfcone; /* -> top byte */
+#define LITEND *mfctop		   /* named flag; 1=little-endian */
+#endif
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* round-for-reround digits					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+const uByte DECSTICKYTAB[10]={1,1,2,3,4,6,6,7,8,9}; /* used if sticky */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Powers of ten (powers[n]==10**n, 0<=n<=9)			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+const uLong DECPOWERS[19] = {1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, 1000000,
+  10000000, 100000000, 1000000000, 10000000000ULL, 100000000000ULL,
+  1000000000000ULL, 10000000000000ULL, 100000000000000ULL, 1000000000000000ULL,
+  10000000000000000ULL, 100000000000000000ULL, 1000000000000000000ULL, };
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextClearStatus -- clear bits in current status	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be queried		      */
+/*  mask indicates the bits to be cleared (the status bit that	      */
+/*    corresponds to each 1 bit in the mask is cleared)		      */
+/*  returns context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decContext *decContextClearStatus(decContext *context, uInt mask) {
+  context->status&=~mask;
+  return context;
+  } /* decContextClearStatus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextDefault -- initialize a context structure		      */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the structure to be initialized			      */
+/*  kind selects the required set of default values, one of:	      */
+/*	DEC_INIT_BASE	    -- select ANSI X3-274 defaults	      */
+/*	DEC_INIT_DECIMAL32  -- select IEEE 754r defaults, 32-bit      */
+/*	DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64  -- select IEEE 754r defaults, 64-bit      */
+/*	DEC_INIT_DECIMAL128 -- select IEEE 754r defaults, 128-bit     */
+/*	For any other value a valid context is returned, but with     */
+/*	Invalid_operation set in the status field.		      */
+/*  returns a context structure with the appropriate initial values.  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decContext * decContextDefault(decContext *context, Int kind) {
+  /* set defaults... */
+  context->digits=9;			     /* 9 digits */
+  context->emax=DEC_MAX_EMAX;		     /* 9-digit exponents */
+  context->emin=DEC_MIN_EMIN;		     /* .. balanced */
+  context->round=DEC_ROUND_HALF_UP;	     /* 0.5 rises */
+  context->traps=DEC_Errors;		     /* all but informational */
+  context->status=0;			     /* cleared */
+  context->clamp=0;			     /* no clamping */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  context->extended=0;			     /* cleared */
+  #endif
+  switch (kind) {
+    case DEC_INIT_BASE:
+      /* [use defaults] */
+      break;
+    case DEC_INIT_DECIMAL32:
+      context->digits=7;		     /* digits */
+      context->emax=96;			     /* Emax */
+      context->emin=-95;		     /* Emin */
+      context->round=DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN;    /* 0.5 to nearest even */
+      context->traps=0;			     /* no traps set */
+      context->clamp=1;			     /* clamp exponents */
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      context->extended=1;		     /* set */
+      #endif
+      break;
+    case DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64:
+      context->digits=16;		     /* digits */
+      context->emax=384;		     /* Emax */
+      context->emin=-383;		     /* Emin */
+      context->round=DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN;    /* 0.5 to nearest even */
+      context->traps=0;			     /* no traps set */
+      context->clamp=1;			     /* clamp exponents */
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      context->extended=1;		     /* set */
+      #endif
+      break;
+    case DEC_INIT_DECIMAL128:
+      context->digits=34;		     /* digits */
+      context->emax=6144;		     /* Emax */
+      context->emin=-6143;		     /* Emin */
+      context->round=DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN;    /* 0.5 to nearest even */
+      context->traps=0;			     /* no traps set */
+      context->clamp=1;			     /* clamp exponents */
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      context->extended=1;		     /* set */
+      #endif
+      break;
+
+    default:				     /* invalid Kind */
+      /* use defaults, and .. */
+      decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Invalid_operation); /* trap */
+    }
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (LITEND!=DECLITEND) {
+    const char *adj;
+    if (LITEND) adj="little";
+	   else adj="big";
+    printf("Warning: DECLITEND is set to %d, but this computer appears to be %s-endian\n",
+	   DECLITEND, adj);
+    }
+  #endif
+  return context;} /* decContextDefault */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextGetRounding -- return current rounding mode	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be queried		      */
+/*  returns the rounding mode					      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+enum rounding decContextGetRounding(decContext *context) {
+  return context->round;
+  } /* decContextGetRounding */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextGetStatus -- return current status			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be queried		      */
+/*  returns status						      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uInt decContextGetStatus(decContext *context) {
+  return context->status;
+  } /* decContextGetStatus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextRestoreStatus -- restore bits in current status	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be updated		      */
+/*  newstatus is the source for the bits to be restored		      */
+/*  mask indicates the bits to be restored (the status bit that	      */
+/*    corresponds to each 1 bit in the mask is set to the value of    */
+/*    the correspnding bit in newstatus)			      */
+/*  returns context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decContext *decContextRestoreStatus(decContext *context,
+				    uInt newstatus, uInt mask) {
+  context->status&=~mask;		/* clear the selected bits */
+  context->status|=(mask&newstatus);	/* or in the new bits */
+  return context;
+  } /* decContextRestoreStatus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextSaveStatus -- save bits in current status		      */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be queried		      */
+/*  mask indicates the bits to be saved (the status bits that	      */
+/*    correspond to each 1 bit in the mask are saved)		      */
+/*  returns the AND of the mask and the current status		      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uInt decContextSaveStatus(decContext *context, uInt mask) {
+  return context->status&mask;
+  } /* decContextSaveStatus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextSetRounding -- set current rounding mode		      */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be updated		      */
+/*  newround is the value which will replace the current mode	      */
+/*  returns context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decContext *decContextSetRounding(decContext *context,
+				  enum rounding newround) {
+  context->round=newround;
+  return context;
+  } /* decContextSetRounding */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextSetStatus -- set status and raise trap if appropriate    */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be updated		      */
+/*  status  is the DEC_ exception code				      */
+/*  returns the context structure				      */
+/*								      */
+/* Control may never return from this routine, if there is a signal   */
+/* handler and it takes a long jump.				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decContext * decContextSetStatus(decContext *context, uInt status) {
+  context->status|=status;
+  if (status & context->traps) raise(SIGFPE);
+  return context;} /* decContextSetStatus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextSetStatusFromString -- set status from a string + trap   */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be updated		      */
+/*  string is a string exactly equal to one that might be returned    */
+/*	      by decContextStatusToString			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  The status bit corresponding to the string is set, and a trap     */
+/*  is raised if appropriate.					      */
+/*								      */
+/*  returns the context structure, unless the string is equal to      */
+/*    DEC_Condition_MU or is not recognized.  In these cases NULL is  */
+/*    returned.							      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decContext * decContextSetStatusFromString(decContext *context,
+					   const char *string) {
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_CS)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Conversion_syntax);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_DZ)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Division_by_zero);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_DI)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Division_impossible);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_DU)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Division_undefined);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_IE)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Inexact);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_IS)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Insufficient_storage);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_IC)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Invalid_context);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_IO)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Invalid_operation);
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_LD)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Lost_digits);
+  #endif
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_OV)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Overflow);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_PA)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Clamped);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_RO)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Rounded);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_SU)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Subnormal);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_UN)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatus(context, DEC_Underflow);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_ZE)==0)
+    return context;
+  return NULL;	/* Multiple status, or unknown */
+  } /* decContextSetStatusFromString */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextSetStatusFromStringQuiet -- set status from a string     */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be updated		      */
+/*  string is a string exactly equal to one that might be returned    */
+/*	      by decContextStatusToString			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  The status bit corresponding to the string is set; no trap is     */
+/*  raised.							      */
+/*								      */
+/*  returns the context structure, unless the string is equal to      */
+/*    DEC_Condition_MU or is not recognized.  In these cases NULL is  */
+/*    returned.							      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decContext * decContextSetStatusFromStringQuiet(decContext *context,
+						const char *string) {
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_CS)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Conversion_syntax);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_DZ)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Division_by_zero);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_DI)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Division_impossible);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_DU)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Division_undefined);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_IE)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Inexact);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_IS)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Insufficient_storage);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_IC)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Invalid_context);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_IO)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Invalid_operation);
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_LD)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Lost_digits);
+  #endif
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_OV)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Overflow);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_PA)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Clamped);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_RO)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Rounded);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_SU)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Subnormal);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_UN)==0)
+    return decContextSetStatusQuiet(context, DEC_Underflow);
+  if (strcmp(string, DEC_Condition_ZE)==0)
+    return context;
+  return NULL;	/* Multiple status, or unknown */
+  } /* decContextSetStatusFromStringQuiet */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextSetStatusQuiet -- set status without trap		      */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be updated		      */
+/*  status  is the DEC_ exception code				      */
+/*  returns the context structure				      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decContext * decContextSetStatusQuiet(decContext *context, uInt status) {
+  context->status|=status;
+  return context;} /* decContextSetStatusQuiet */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextStatusToString -- convert status flags to a string	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is a context with valid status field		      */
+/*								      */
+/*  returns a constant string describing the condition.	 If multiple  */
+/*    (or no) flags are set, a generic constant message is returned.  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+const char *decContextStatusToString(const decContext *context) {
+  Int status=context->status;
+
+  /* test the five IEEE first, as some of the others are ambiguous when */
+  /* DECEXTFLAG=0 */
+  if (status==DEC_Invalid_operation    ) return DEC_Condition_IO;
+  if (status==DEC_Division_by_zero     ) return DEC_Condition_DZ;
+  if (status==DEC_Overflow	       ) return DEC_Condition_OV;
+  if (status==DEC_Underflow	       ) return DEC_Condition_UN;
+  if (status==DEC_Inexact	       ) return DEC_Condition_IE;
+
+  if (status==DEC_Division_impossible  ) return DEC_Condition_DI;
+  if (status==DEC_Division_undefined   ) return DEC_Condition_DU;
+  if (status==DEC_Rounded	       ) return DEC_Condition_RO;
+  if (status==DEC_Clamped	       ) return DEC_Condition_PA;
+  if (status==DEC_Subnormal	       ) return DEC_Condition_SU;
+  if (status==DEC_Conversion_syntax    ) return DEC_Condition_CS;
+  if (status==DEC_Insufficient_storage ) return DEC_Condition_IS;
+  if (status==DEC_Invalid_context      ) return DEC_Condition_IC;
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (status==DEC_Lost_digits	       ) return DEC_Condition_LD;
+  #endif
+  if (status==0			       ) return DEC_Condition_ZE;
+  return DEC_Condition_MU;  /* Multiple errors */
+  } /* decContextStatusToString */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextTestSavedStatus -- test bits in saved status	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  oldstatus is the status word to be tested			      */
+/*  mask indicates the bits to be tested (the oldstatus bits that     */
+/*    correspond to each 1 bit in the mask are tested)		      */
+/*  returns 1 if any of the tested bits are 1, or 0 otherwise	      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uInt decContextTestSavedStatus(uInt oldstatus, uInt mask) {
+  return (oldstatus&mask)!=0;
+  } /* decContextTestSavedStatus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextTestStatus -- test bits in current status		      */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be updated		      */
+/*  mask indicates the bits to be tested (the status bits that	      */
+/*    correspond to each 1 bit in the mask are tested)		      */
+/*  returns 1 if any of the tested bits are 1, or 0 otherwise	      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uInt decContextTestStatus(decContext *context, uInt mask) {
+  return (context->status&mask)!=0;
+  } /* decContextTestStatus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decContextZeroStatus -- clear all status bits		      */
+/*								      */
+/*  context is the context structure to be updated		      */
+/*  returns context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decContext *decContextZeroStatus(decContext *context) {
+  context->status=0;
+  return context;
+  } /* decContextZeroStatus */
diff --git a/libdecnumber/decNumber.c b/libdecnumber/decNumber.c
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..58211e7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libdecnumber/decNumber.c
@@ -0,0 +1,8195 @@
+/* Decimal number arithmetic module for the decNumber C Library.
+   Copyright (C) 2005, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+   Contributed by IBM Corporation.  Author Mike Cowlishaw.
+
+   This file is part of GCC.
+
+   GCC is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under
+   the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free
+   Software Foundation; either version 2, or (at your option) any later
+   version.
+
+   In addition to the permissions in the GNU General Public License,
+   the Free Software Foundation gives you unlimited permission to link
+   the compiled version of this file into combinations with other
+   programs, and to distribute those combinations without any
+   restriction coming from the use of this file.  (The General Public
+   License restrictions do apply in other respects; for example, they
+   cover modification of the file, and distribution when not linked
+   into a combine executable.)
+
+   GCC is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY
+   WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or
+   FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU General Public License
+   for more details.
+
+   You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+   along with GCC; see the file COPYING.  If not, write to the Free
+   Software Foundation, 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA
+   02110-1301, USA.  */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Decimal Number arithmetic module				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This module comprises the routines for General Decimal Arithmetic  */
+/* as defined in the specification which may be found on the	      */
+/* http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal web pages.  It implements both */
+/* the full ('extended') arithmetic and the simpler ('subset')	      */
+/* arithmetic.							      */
+/*								      */
+/* Usage notes:							      */
+/*								      */
+/* 1. This code is ANSI C89 except:				      */
+/*								      */
+/*       If DECDPUN>4 or DECUSE64=1, the C99 64-bit int64_t and	      */
+/*	 uint64_t types may be used.  To avoid these, set DECUSE64=0  */
+/*	 and DECDPUN<=4 (see documentation).			      */
+/*								      */
+/* 2. The decNumber format which this library uses is optimized for   */
+/*    efficient processing of relatively short numbers; in particular */
+/*    it allows the use of fixed sized structures and minimizes copy  */
+/*    and move operations.  It does, however, support arbitrary	      */
+/*    precision (up to 999,999,999 digits) and arbitrary exponent     */
+/*    range (Emax in the range 0 through 999,999,999 and Emin in the  */
+/*    range -999,999,999 through 0).  Mathematical functions (for     */
+/*    example decNumberExp) as identified below are restricted more   */
+/*    tightly: digits, emax, and -emin in the context must be <=      */
+/*    DEC_MAX_MATH (999999), and their operand(s) must be within      */
+/*    these bounds.						      */
+/*								      */
+/* 3. Logical functions are further restricted; their operands must   */
+/*    be finite, positive, have an exponent of zero, and all digits   */
+/*    must be either 0 or 1.  The result will only contain digits     */
+/*    which are 0 or 1 (and will have exponent=0 and a sign of 0).    */
+/*								      */
+/* 4. Operands to operator functions are never modified unless they   */
+/*    are also specified to be the result number (which is always     */
+/*    permitted).  Other than that case, operands must not overlap.   */
+/*								      */
+/* 5. Error handling: the type of the error is ORed into the status   */
+/*    flags in the current context (decContext structure).  The	      */
+/*    SIGFPE signal is then raised if the corresponding trap-enabler  */
+/*    flag in the decContext is set (is 1).			      */
+/*								      */
+/*    It is the responsibility of the caller to clear the status      */
+/*    flags as required.					      */
+/*								      */
+/*    The result of any routine which returns a number will always    */
+/*    be a valid number (which may be a special value, such as an     */
+/*    Infinity or NaN).						      */
+/*								      */
+/* 6. The decNumber format is not an exchangeable concrete	      */
+/*    representation as it comprises fields which may be machine-     */
+/*    dependent (packed or unpacked, or special length, for example). */
+/*    Canonical conversions to and from strings are provided; other   */
+/*    conversions are available in separate modules.		      */
+/*								      */
+/* 7. Normally, input operands are assumed to be valid.	 Set DECCHECK */
+/*    to 1 for extended operand checking (including NULL operands).   */
+/*    Results are undefined if a badly-formed structure (or a NULL    */
+/*    pointer to a structure) is provided, though with DECCHECK	      */
+/*    enabled the operator routines are protected against exceptions. */
+/*    (Except if the result pointer is NULL, which is unrecoverable.) */
+/*								      */
+/*    However, the routines will never cause exceptions if they are   */
+/*    given well-formed operands, even if the value of the operands   */
+/*    is inappropriate for the operation and DECCHECK is not set.     */
+/*    (Except for SIGFPE, as and where documented.)		      */
+/*								      */
+/* 8. Subset arithmetic is available only if DECSUBSET is set to 1.   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Implementation notes for maintenance of this module:		      */
+/*								      */
+/* 1. Storage leak protection:	Routines which use malloc are not     */
+/*    permitted to use return for fastpath or error exits (i.e.,      */
+/*    they follow strict structured programming conventions).	      */
+/*    Instead they have a do{}while(0); construct surrounding the     */
+/*    code which is protected -- break may be used to exit this.      */
+/*    Other routines can safely use the return statement inline.      */
+/*								      */
+/*    Storage leak accounting can be enabled using DECALLOC.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* 2. All loops use the for(;;) construct.  Any do construct does     */
+/*    not loop; it is for allocation protection as just described.    */
+/*								      */
+/* 3. Setting status in the context must always be the very last      */
+/*    action in a routine, as non-0 status may raise a trap and hence */
+/*    the call to set status may not return (if the handler uses long */
+/*    jump).  Therefore all cleanup must be done first.	 In general,  */
+/*    to achieve this status is accumulated and is only applied just  */
+/*    before return by calling decContextSetStatus (via decStatus).   */
+/*								      */
+/*    Routines which allocate storage cannot, in general, use the     */
+/*    'top level' routines which could cause a non-returning	      */
+/*    transfer of control.  The decXxxxOp routines are safe (do not   */
+/*    call decStatus even if traps are set in the context) and should */
+/*    be used instead (they are also a little faster).		      */
+/*								      */
+/* 4. Exponent checking is minimized by allowing the exponent to      */
+/*    grow outside its limits during calculations, provided that      */
+/*    the decFinalize function is called later.	 Multiplication and   */
+/*    division, and intermediate calculations in exponentiation,      */
+/*    require more careful checks because of the risk of 31-bit	      */
+/*    overflow (the most negative valid exponent is -1999999997, for  */
+/*    a 999999999-digit number with adjusted exponent of -999999999). */
+/*								      */
+/* 5. Rounding is deferred until finalization of results, with any    */
+/*    'off to the right' data being represented as a single digit     */
+/*    residue (in the range -1 through 9).  This avoids any double-   */
+/*    rounding when more than one shortening takes place (for	      */
+/*    example, when a result is subnormal).			      */
+/*								      */
+/* 6. The digits count is allowed to rise to a multiple of DECDPUN    */
+/*    during many operations, so whole Units are handled and exact    */
+/*    accounting of digits is not needed.  The correct digits value   */
+/*    is found by decGetDigits, which accounts for leading zeros.     */
+/*    This must be called before any rounding if the number of digits */
+/*    is not known exactly.					      */
+/*								      */
+/* 7. The multiply-by-reciprocal 'trick' is used for partitioning     */
+/*    numbers up to four digits, using appropriate constants.  This   */
+/*    is not useful for longer numbers because overflow of 32 bits    */
+/*    would lead to 4 multiplies, which is almost as expensive as     */
+/*    a divide (unless a floating-point or 64-bit multiply is	      */
+/*    assumed to be available).					      */
+/*								      */
+/* 8. Unusual abbreviations that may be used in the commentary:	      */
+/*	lhs -- left hand side (operand, of an operation)	      */
+/*	lsd -- least significant digit (of coefficient)		      */
+/*	lsu -- least significant Unit (of coefficient)		      */
+/*	msd -- most significant digit (of coefficient)		      */
+/*	msi -- most significant item (in an array)		      */
+/*	msu -- most significant Unit (of coefficient)		      */
+/*	rhs -- right hand side (operand, of an operation)	      */
+/*	+ve -- positive						      */
+/*	-ve -- negative						      */
+/*	**  -- raise to the power				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+
+#include <stdlib.h>		   /* for malloc, free, etc. */
+#include <stdio.h>		   /* for printf [if needed] */
+#include <string.h>		   /* for strcpy */
+#include <ctype.h>		   /* for lower */
+#include "libdecnumber/dconfig.h"
+#include "libdecnumber/decNumber.h"
+#include "libdecnumber/decNumberLocal.h"
+
+/* Constants */
+/* Public lookup table used by the D2U macro */
+const uByte d2utable[DECMAXD2U+1]=D2UTABLE;
+
+#define DECVERB	    1		   /* set to 1 for verbose DECCHECK */
+#define powers	    DECPOWERS	   /* old internal name */
+
+/* Local constants */
+#define DIVIDE	    0x80	   /* Divide operators */
+#define REMAINDER   0x40	   /* .. */
+#define DIVIDEINT   0x20	   /* .. */
+#define REMNEAR	    0x10	   /* .. */
+#define COMPARE	    0x01	   /* Compare operators */
+#define COMPMAX	    0x02	   /* .. */
+#define COMPMIN	    0x03	   /* .. */
+#define COMPTOTAL   0x04	   /* .. */
+#define COMPNAN	    0x05	   /* .. [NaN processing] */
+#define COMPSIG	    0x06	   /* .. [signaling COMPARE] */
+#define COMPMAXMAG  0x07	   /* .. */
+#define COMPMINMAG  0x08	   /* .. */
+
+#define DEC_sNaN     0x40000000	   /* local status: sNaN signal */
+#define BADINT	(Int)0x80000000	   /* most-negative Int; error indicator */
+/* Next two indicate an integer >= 10**6, and its parity (bottom bit) */
+#define BIGEVEN (Int)0x80000002
+#define BIGODD	(Int)0x80000003
+
+static Unit uarrone[1]={1};   /* Unit array of 1, used for incrementing */
+
+/* Granularity-dependent code */
+#if DECDPUN<=4
+  #define eInt	Int	      /* extended integer */
+  #define ueInt uInt	      /* unsigned extended integer */
+  /* Constant multipliers for divide-by-power-of five using reciprocal */
+  /* multiply, after removing powers of 2 by shifting, and final shift */
+  /* of 17 [we only need up to **4] */
+  static const uInt multies[]={131073, 26215, 5243, 1049, 210};
+  /* QUOT10 -- macro to return the quotient of unit u divided by 10**n */
+  #define QUOT10(u, n) ((((uInt)(u)>>(n))*multies[n])>>17)
+#else
+  /* For DECDPUN>4 non-ANSI-89 64-bit types are needed. */
+  #if !DECUSE64
+    #error decNumber.c: DECUSE64 must be 1 when DECDPUN>4
+  #endif
+  #define eInt	Long	      /* extended integer */
+  #define ueInt uLong	      /* unsigned extended integer */
+#endif
+
+/* Local routines */
+static decNumber * decAddOp(decNumber *, const decNumber *, const decNumber *,
+			      decContext *, uByte, uInt *);
+static Flag	   decBiStr(const char *, const char *, const char *);
+static uInt	   decCheckMath(const decNumber *, decContext *, uInt *);
+static void	   decApplyRound(decNumber *, decContext *, Int, uInt *);
+static Int	   decCompare(const decNumber *lhs, const decNumber *rhs, Flag);
+static decNumber * decCompareOp(decNumber *, const decNumber *,
+			      const decNumber *, decContext *,
+			      Flag, uInt *);
+static void	   decCopyFit(decNumber *, const decNumber *, decContext *,
+			      Int *, uInt *);
+static decNumber * decDecap(decNumber *, Int);
+static decNumber * decDivideOp(decNumber *, const decNumber *,
+			      const decNumber *, decContext *, Flag, uInt *);
+static decNumber * decExpOp(decNumber *, const decNumber *,
+			      decContext *, uInt *);
+static void	   decFinalize(decNumber *, decContext *, Int *, uInt *);
+static Int	   decGetDigits(Unit *, Int);
+static Int	   decGetInt(const decNumber *);
+static decNumber * decLnOp(decNumber *, const decNumber *,
+			      decContext *, uInt *);
+static decNumber * decMultiplyOp(decNumber *, const decNumber *,
+			      const decNumber *, decContext *,
+			      uInt *);
+static decNumber * decNaNs(decNumber *, const decNumber *,
+			      const decNumber *, decContext *, uInt *);
+static decNumber * decQuantizeOp(decNumber *, const decNumber *,
+			      const decNumber *, decContext *, Flag,
+			      uInt *);
+static void	   decReverse(Unit *, Unit *);
+static void	   decSetCoeff(decNumber *, decContext *, const Unit *,
+			      Int, Int *, uInt *);
+static void	   decSetMaxValue(decNumber *, decContext *);
+static void	   decSetOverflow(decNumber *, decContext *, uInt *);
+static void	   decSetSubnormal(decNumber *, decContext *, Int *, uInt *);
+static Int	   decShiftToLeast(Unit *, Int, Int);
+static Int	   decShiftToMost(Unit *, Int, Int);
+static void	   decStatus(decNumber *, uInt, decContext *);
+static void	   decToString(const decNumber *, char[], Flag);
+static decNumber * decTrim(decNumber *, decContext *, Flag, Int *);
+static Int	   decUnitAddSub(const Unit *, Int, const Unit *, Int, Int,
+			      Unit *, Int);
+static Int	   decUnitCompare(const Unit *, Int, const Unit *, Int, Int);
+
+#if !DECSUBSET
+/* decFinish == decFinalize when no subset arithmetic needed */
+#define decFinish(a,b,c,d) decFinalize(a,b,c,d)
+#else
+static void	   decFinish(decNumber *, decContext *, Int *, uInt *);
+static decNumber * decRoundOperand(const decNumber *, decContext *, uInt *);
+#endif
+
+/* Local macros */
+/* masked special-values bits */
+#define SPECIALARG  (rhs->bits & DECSPECIAL)
+#define SPECIALARGS ((lhs->bits | rhs->bits) & DECSPECIAL)
+
+/* Diagnostic macros, etc. */
+#if DECALLOC
+/* Handle malloc/free accounting.  If enabled, our accountable routines */
+/* are used; otherwise the code just goes straight to the system malloc */
+/* and free routines. */
+#define malloc(a) decMalloc(a)
+#define free(a) decFree(a)
+#define DECFENCE 0x5a		   /* corruption detector */
+/* 'Our' malloc and free: */
+static void *decMalloc(size_t);
+static void  decFree(void *);
+uInt decAllocBytes=0;		   /* count of bytes allocated */
+/* Note that DECALLOC code only checks for storage buffer overflow. */
+/* To check for memory leaks, the decAllocBytes variable must be */
+/* checked to be 0 at appropriate times (e.g., after the test */
+/* harness completes a set of tests).  This checking may be unreliable */
+/* if the testing is done in a multi-thread environment. */
+#endif
+
+#if DECCHECK
+/* Optional checking routines.	Enabling these means that decNumber */
+/* and decContext operands to operator routines are checked for */
+/* correctness.	 This roughly doubles the execution time of the */
+/* fastest routines (and adds 600+ bytes), so should not normally be */
+/* used in 'production'. */
+/* decCheckInexact is used to check that inexact results have a full */
+/* complement of digits (where appropriate -- this is not the case */
+/* for Quantize, for example) */
+#define DECUNRESU ((decNumber *)(void *)0xffffffff)
+#define DECUNUSED ((const decNumber *)(void *)0xffffffff)
+#define DECUNCONT ((decContext *)(void *)(0xffffffff))
+static Flag decCheckOperands(decNumber *, const decNumber *,
+			     const decNumber *, decContext *);
+static Flag decCheckNumber(const decNumber *);
+static void decCheckInexact(const decNumber *, decContext *);
+#endif
+
+#if DECTRACE || DECCHECK
+/* Optional trace/debugging routines (may or may not be used) */
+void decNumberShow(const decNumber *);	/* displays the components of a number */
+static void decDumpAr(char, const Unit *, Int);
+#endif
+
+/* ================================================================== */
+/* Conversions							      */
+/* ================================================================== */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* from-int32 -- conversion from Int or uInt			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  dn is the decNumber to receive the integer			      */
+/*  in or uin is the integer to be converted			      */
+/*  returns dn							      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberFromInt32(decNumber *dn, Int in) {
+  uInt unsig;
+  if (in>=0) unsig=in;
+   else {				/* negative (possibly BADINT) */
+    if (in==BADINT) unsig=(uInt)1073741824*2; /* special case */
+     else unsig=-in;			/* invert */
+    }
+  /* in is now positive */
+  decNumberFromUInt32(dn, unsig);
+  if (in<0) dn->bits=DECNEG;		/* sign needed */
+  return dn;
+  } /* decNumberFromInt32 */
+
+decNumber * decNumberFromUInt32(decNumber *dn, uInt uin) {
+  Unit *up;				/* work pointer */
+  decNumberZero(dn);			/* clean */
+  if (uin==0) return dn;		/* [or decGetDigits bad call] */
+  for (up=dn->lsu; uin>0; up++) {
+    *up=(Unit)(uin%(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+    uin=uin/(DECDPUNMAX+1);
+    }
+  dn->digits=decGetDigits(dn->lsu, up-dn->lsu);
+  return dn;
+  } /* decNumberFromUInt32 */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* to-int32 -- conversion to Int or uInt			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  dn is the decNumber to convert				      */
+/*  set is the context for reporting errors			      */
+/*  returns the converted decNumber, or 0 if Invalid is set	      */
+/*								      */
+/* Invalid is set if the decNumber does not have exponent==0 or if    */
+/* it is a NaN, Infinite, or out-of-range.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+Int decNumberToInt32(const decNumber *dn, decContext *set) {
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(DECUNRESU, DECUNUSED, dn, set)) return 0;
+  #endif
+
+  /* special or too many digits, or bad exponent */
+  if (dn->bits&DECSPECIAL || dn->digits>10 || dn->exponent!=0) ; /* bad */
+   else { /* is a finite integer with 10 or fewer digits */
+    Int d;			   /* work */
+    const Unit *up;		   /* .. */
+    uInt hi=0, lo;		   /* .. */
+    up=dn->lsu;			   /* -> lsu */
+    lo=*up;			   /* get 1 to 9 digits */
+    #if DECDPUN>1		   /* split to higher */
+      hi=lo/10;
+      lo=lo%10;
+    #endif
+    up++;
+    /* collect remaining Units, if any, into hi */
+    for (d=DECDPUN; d<dn->digits; up++, d+=DECDPUN) hi+=*up*powers[d-1];
+    /* now low has the lsd, hi the remainder */
+    if (hi>214748364 || (hi==214748364 && lo>7)) { /* out of range? */
+      /* most-negative is a reprieve */
+      if (dn->bits&DECNEG && hi==214748364 && lo==8) return 0x80000000;
+      /* bad -- drop through */
+      }
+     else { /* in-range always */
+      Int i=X10(hi)+lo;
+      if (dn->bits&DECNEG) return -i;
+      return i;
+      }
+    } /* integer */
+  decContextSetStatus(set, DEC_Invalid_operation); /* [may not return] */
+  return 0;
+  } /* decNumberToInt32 */
+
+uInt decNumberToUInt32(const decNumber *dn, decContext *set) {
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(DECUNRESU, DECUNUSED, dn, set)) return 0;
+  #endif
+  /* special or too many digits, or bad exponent, or negative (<0) */
+  if (dn->bits&DECSPECIAL || dn->digits>10 || dn->exponent!=0
+    || (dn->bits&DECNEG && !ISZERO(dn)));		    /* bad */
+   else { /* is a finite integer with 10 or fewer digits */
+    Int d;			   /* work */
+    const Unit *up;		   /* .. */
+    uInt hi=0, lo;		   /* .. */
+    up=dn->lsu;			   /* -> lsu */
+    lo=*up;			   /* get 1 to 9 digits */
+    #if DECDPUN>1		   /* split to higher */
+      hi=lo/10;
+      lo=lo%10;
+    #endif
+    up++;
+    /* collect remaining Units, if any, into hi */
+    for (d=DECDPUN; d<dn->digits; up++, d+=DECDPUN) hi+=*up*powers[d-1];
+
+    /* now low has the lsd, hi the remainder */
+    if (hi>429496729 || (hi==429496729 && lo>5)) ; /* no reprieve possible */
+     else return X10(hi)+lo;
+    } /* integer */
+  decContextSetStatus(set, DEC_Invalid_operation); /* [may not return] */
+  return 0;
+  } /* decNumberToUInt32 */
+
+decNumber *decNumberFromInt64(decNumber *dn, int64_t in)
+{
+    uint64_t unsig = in;
+    if (in < 0) {
+        unsig = -unsig;
+    }
+
+    decNumberFromUInt64(dn, unsig);
+    if (in < 0) {
+        dn->bits = DECNEG;        /* sign needed */
+    }
+    return dn;
+} /* decNumberFromInt64 */
+
+decNumber *decNumberFromUInt64(decNumber *dn, uint64_t uin)
+{
+    Unit *up;                             /* work pointer */
+    decNumberZero(dn);                    /* clean */
+    if (uin == 0) {
+        return dn;                /* [or decGetDigits bad call] */
+    }
+    for (up = dn->lsu; uin > 0; up++) {
+        *up = (Unit)(uin % (DECDPUNMAX + 1));
+        uin = uin / (DECDPUNMAX + 1);
+    }
+    dn->digits = decGetDigits(dn->lsu, up-dn->lsu);
+    return dn;
+} /* decNumberFromUInt64 */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* to-int64 -- conversion to int64                                    */
+/*                                                                    */
+/*  dn is the decNumber to convert.  dn is assumed to have been       */
+/*    rounded to a floating point integer value.                      */
+/*  set is the context for reporting errors                           */
+/*  returns the converted decNumber, or 0 if Invalid is set           */
+/*                                                                    */
+/* Invalid is set if the decNumber is a NaN, Infinite or is out of    */
+/* range for a signed 64 bit integer.                                 */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+
+int64_t decNumberIntegralToInt64(const decNumber *dn, decContext *set)
+{
+    if (decNumberIsSpecial(dn) || (dn->exponent < 0) ||
+       (dn->digits + dn->exponent > 19)) {
+        goto Invalid;
+    } else {
+        int64_t d;        /* work */
+        const Unit *up;   /* .. */
+        uint64_t hi = 0;
+        up = dn->lsu;     /* -> lsu */
+
+        for (d = 1; d <= dn->digits; up++, d += DECDPUN) {
+            uint64_t prev = hi;
+            hi += *up * powers[d-1];
+            if ((hi < prev) || (hi > INT64_MAX)) {
+                goto Invalid;
+            }
+        }
+
+        uint64_t prev = hi;
+        hi *= (uint64_t)powers[dn->exponent];
+        if ((hi < prev) || (hi > INT64_MAX)) {
+            goto Invalid;
+        }
+        return (decNumberIsNegative(dn)) ? -((int64_t)hi) : (int64_t)hi;
+    }
+
+Invalid:
+    decContextSetStatus(set, DEC_Invalid_operation);
+    return 0;
+} /* decNumberIntegralToInt64 */
+
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* to-scientific-string -- conversion to numeric string		      */
+/* to-engineering-string -- conversion to numeric string	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   decNumberToString(dn, string);				      */
+/*   decNumberToEngString(dn, string);				      */
+/*								      */
+/*  dn is the decNumber to convert				      */
+/*  string is the string where the result will be laid out	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  string must be at least dn->digits+14 characters long	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  No error is possible, and no status can be set.		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+char * decNumberToString(const decNumber *dn, char *string){
+  decToString(dn, string, 0);
+  return string;
+  } /* DecNumberToString */
+
+char * decNumberToEngString(const decNumber *dn, char *string){
+  decToString(dn, string, 1);
+  return string;
+  } /* DecNumberToEngString */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* to-number -- conversion from numeric string			      */
+/*								      */
+/* decNumberFromString -- convert string to decNumber		      */
+/*   dn	       -- the number structure to fill			      */
+/*   chars[]   -- the string to convert ('\0' terminated)	      */
+/*   set       -- the context used for processing any error,	      */
+/*		  determining the maximum precision available	      */
+/*		  (set.digits), determining the maximum and minimum   */
+/*		  exponent (set.emax and set.emin), determining if    */
+/*		  extended values are allowed, and checking the	      */
+/*		  rounding mode if overflow occurs or rounding is     */
+/*		  needed.					      */
+/*								      */
+/* The length of the coefficient and the size of the exponent are     */
+/* checked by this routine, so the correct error (Underflow or	      */
+/* Overflow) can be reported or rounding applied, as necessary.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* If bad syntax is detected, the result will be a quiet NaN.	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberFromString(decNumber *dn, const char chars[],
+				decContext *set) {
+  Int	exponent=0;		   /* working exponent [assume 0] */
+  uByte bits=0;			   /* working flags [assume +ve] */
+  Unit	*res;			   /* where result will be built */
+  Unit	resbuff[SD2U(DECBUFFER+9)];/* local buffer in case need temporary */
+				   /* [+9 allows for ln() constants] */
+  Unit	*allocres=NULL;		   /* -> allocated result, iff allocated */
+  Int	d=0;			   /* count of digits found in decimal part */
+  const char *dotchar=NULL;	   /* where dot was found */
+  const char *cfirst=chars;	   /* -> first character of decimal part */
+  const char *last=NULL;	   /* -> last digit of decimal part */
+  const char *c;		   /* work */
+  Unit	*up;			   /* .. */
+  #if DECDPUN>1
+  Int	cut, out;		   /* .. */
+  #endif
+  Int	residue;		   /* rounding residue */
+  uInt	status=0;		   /* error code */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(DECUNRESU, DECUNUSED, DECUNUSED, set))
+    return decNumberZero(dn);
+  #endif
+
+  do {				   /* status & malloc protection */
+    for (c=chars;; c++) {	   /* -> input character */
+      if (*c>='0' && *c<='9') {	   /* test for Arabic digit */
+	last=c;
+	d++;			   /* count of real digits */
+	continue;		   /* still in decimal part */
+	}
+      if (*c=='.' && dotchar==NULL) { /* first '.' */
+	dotchar=c;		   /* record offset into decimal part */
+	if (c==cfirst) cfirst++;   /* first digit must follow */
+	continue;}
+      if (c==chars) {		   /* first in string... */
+	if (*c=='-') {		   /* valid - sign */
+	  cfirst++;
+	  bits=DECNEG;
+	  continue;}
+	if (*c=='+') {		   /* valid + sign */
+	  cfirst++;
+	  continue;}
+	}
+      /* *c is not a digit, or a valid +, -, or '.' */
+      break;
+      } /* c */
+
+    if (last==NULL) {		   /* no digits yet */
+      status=DEC_Conversion_syntax;/* assume the worst */
+      if (*c=='\0') break;	   /* and no more to come... */
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      /* if subset then infinities and NaNs are not allowed */
+      if (!set->extended) break;   /* hopeless */
+      #endif
+      /* Infinities and NaNs are possible, here */
+      if (dotchar!=NULL) break;	   /* .. unless had a dot */
+      decNumberZero(dn);	   /* be optimistic */
+      if (decBiStr(c, "infinity", "INFINITY")
+       || decBiStr(c, "inf", "INF")) {
+	dn->bits=bits | DECINF;
+	status=0;		   /* is OK */
+	break; /* all done */
+	}
+      /* a NaN expected */
+      /* 2003.09.10 NaNs are now permitted to have a sign */
+      dn->bits=bits | DECNAN;	   /* assume simple NaN */
+      if (*c=='s' || *c=='S') {	   /* looks like an sNaN */
+	c++;
+	dn->bits=bits | DECSNAN;
+	}
+      if (*c!='n' && *c!='N') break;	/* check caseless "NaN" */
+      c++;
+      if (*c!='a' && *c!='A') break;	/* .. */
+      c++;
+      if (*c!='n' && *c!='N') break;	/* .. */
+      c++;
+      /* now either nothing, or nnnn payload, expected */
+      /* -> start of integer and skip leading 0s [including plain 0] */
+      for (cfirst=c; *cfirst=='0';) cfirst++;
+      if (*cfirst=='\0') {	   /* "NaN" or "sNaN", maybe with all 0s */
+	status=0;		   /* it's good */
+	break;			   /* .. */
+	}
+      /* something other than 0s; setup last and d as usual [no dots] */
+      for (c=cfirst;; c++, d++) {
+	if (*c<'0' || *c>'9') break; /* test for Arabic digit */
+	last=c;
+	}
+      if (*c!='\0') break;	   /* not all digits */
+      if (d>set->digits-1) {
+	/* [NB: payload in a decNumber can be full length unless */
+	/* clamped, in which case can only be digits-1] */
+	if (set->clamp) break;
+	if (d>set->digits) break;
+	} /* too many digits? */
+      /* good; drop through to convert the integer to coefficient */
+      status=0;			   /* syntax is OK */
+      bits=dn->bits;		   /* for copy-back */
+      } /* last==NULL */
+
+     else if (*c!='\0') {	   /* more to process... */
+      /* had some digits; exponent is only valid sequence now */
+      Flag nege;		   /* 1=negative exponent */
+      const char *firstexp;	   /* -> first significant exponent digit */
+      status=DEC_Conversion_syntax;/* assume the worst */
+      if (*c!='e' && *c!='E') break;
+      /* Found 'e' or 'E' -- now process explicit exponent */
+      /* 1998.07.11: sign no longer required */
+      nege=0;
+      c++;			   /* to (possible) sign */
+      if (*c=='-') {nege=1; c++;}
+       else if (*c=='+') c++;
+      if (*c=='\0') break;
+
+      for (; *c=='0' && *(c+1)!='\0';) c++;  /* strip insignificant zeros */
+      firstexp=c;			     /* save exponent digit place */
+      for (; ;c++) {
+	if (*c<'0' || *c>'9') break;	     /* not a digit */
+	exponent=X10(exponent)+(Int)*c-(Int)'0';
+	} /* c */
+      /* if not now on a '\0', *c must not be a digit */
+      if (*c!='\0') break;
+
+      /* (this next test must be after the syntax checks) */
+      /* if it was too long the exponent may have wrapped, so check */
+      /* carefully and set it to a certain overflow if wrap possible */
+      if (c>=firstexp+9+1) {
+	if (c>firstexp+9+1 || *firstexp>'1') exponent=DECNUMMAXE*2;
+	/* [up to 1999999999 is OK, for example 1E-1000000998] */
+	}
+      if (nege) exponent=-exponent;	/* was negative */
+      status=0;				/* is OK */
+      } /* stuff after digits */
+
+    /* Here when whole string has been inspected; syntax is good */
+    /* cfirst->first digit (never dot), last->last digit (ditto) */
+
+    /* strip leading zeros/dot [leave final 0 if all 0's] */
+    if (*cfirst=='0') {			/* [cfirst has stepped over .] */
+      for (c=cfirst; c<last; c++, cfirst++) {
+	if (*c=='.') continue;		/* ignore dots */
+	if (*c!='0') break;		/* non-zero found */
+	d--;				/* 0 stripped */
+	} /* c */
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      /* make a rapid exit for easy zeros if !extended */
+      if (*cfirst=='0' && !set->extended) {
+	decNumberZero(dn);		/* clean result */
+	break;				/* [could be return] */
+	}
+      #endif
+      } /* at least one leading 0 */
+
+    /* Handle decimal point... */
+    if (dotchar!=NULL && dotchar<last)	/* non-trailing '.' found? */
+      exponent-=(last-dotchar);		/* adjust exponent */
+    /* [we can now ignore the .] */
+
+    /* OK, the digits string is good.  Assemble in the decNumber, or in */
+    /* a temporary units array if rounding is needed */
+    if (d<=set->digits) res=dn->lsu;	/* fits into supplied decNumber */
+     else {				/* rounding needed */
+      Int needbytes=D2U(d)*sizeof(Unit);/* bytes needed */
+      res=resbuff;			/* assume use local buffer */
+      if (needbytes>(Int)sizeof(resbuff)) { /* too big for local */
+	allocres=(Unit *)malloc(needbytes);
+	if (allocres==NULL) {status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage; break;}
+	res=allocres;
+	}
+      }
+    /* res now -> number lsu, buffer, or allocated storage for Unit array */
+
+    /* Place the coefficient into the selected Unit array */
+    /* [this is often 70% of the cost of this function when DECDPUN>1] */
+    #if DECDPUN>1
+    out=0;			   /* accumulator */
+    up=res+D2U(d)-1;		   /* -> msu */
+    cut=d-(up-res)*DECDPUN;	   /* digits in top unit */
+    for (c=cfirst;; c++) {	   /* along the digits */
+      if (*c=='.') continue;	   /* ignore '.' [don't decrement cut] */
+      out=X10(out)+(Int)*c-(Int)'0';
+      if (c==last) break;	   /* done [never get to trailing '.'] */
+      cut--;
+      if (cut>0) continue;	   /* more for this unit */
+      *up=(Unit)out;		   /* write unit */
+      up--;			   /* prepare for unit below.. */
+      cut=DECDPUN;		   /* .. */
+      out=0;			   /* .. */
+      } /* c */
+    *up=(Unit)out;		   /* write lsu */
+
+    #else
+    /* DECDPUN==1 */
+    up=res;			   /* -> lsu */
+    for (c=last; c>=cfirst; c--) { /* over each character, from least */
+      if (*c=='.') continue;	   /* ignore . [don't step up] */
+      *up=(Unit)((Int)*c-(Int)'0');
+      up++;
+      } /* c */
+    #endif
+
+    dn->bits=bits;
+    dn->exponent=exponent;
+    dn->digits=d;
+
+    /* if not in number (too long) shorten into the number */
+    if (d>set->digits) {
+      residue=0;
+      decSetCoeff(dn, set, res, d, &residue, &status);
+      /* always check for overflow or subnormal and round as needed */
+      decFinalize(dn, set, &residue, &status);
+      }
+     else { /* no rounding, but may still have overflow or subnormal */
+      /* [these tests are just for performance; finalize repeats them] */
+      if ((dn->exponent-1<set->emin-dn->digits)
+       || (dn->exponent-1>set->emax-set->digits)) {
+	residue=0;
+	decFinalize(dn, set, &residue, &status);
+	}
+      }
+    /* decNumberShow(dn); */
+    } while(0);				/* [for break] */
+
+  if (allocres!=NULL) free(allocres);	/* drop any storage used */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(dn, status, set);
+  return dn;
+  } /* decNumberFromString */
+
+/* ================================================================== */
+/* Operators							      */
+/* ================================================================== */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberAbs -- absolute value operator			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = abs(A)					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* See also decNumberCopyAbs for a quiet bitwise version of this.     */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This has the same effect as decNumberPlus unless A is negative,    */
+/* in which case it has the same effect as decNumberMinus.	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberAbs(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			 decContext *set) {
+  decNumber dzero;			/* for 0 */
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  decNumberZero(&dzero);		/* set 0 */
+  dzero.exponent=rhs->exponent;		/* [no coefficient expansion] */
+  decAddOp(res, &dzero, rhs, set, (uByte)(rhs->bits & DECNEG), &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberAbs */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberAdd -- add two Numbers				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A + B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X+X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This just calls the routine shared with Subtract		      */
+decNumber * decNumberAdd(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			 const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decAddOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, 0, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberAdd */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberAnd -- AND two Numbers, digitwise			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A & B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X&X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context (used for result length and error report)     */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Logical function restrictions apply (see above); a NaN is	      */
+/* returned with Invalid_operation if a restriction is violated.      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberAnd(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			 const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  const Unit *ua, *ub;			/* -> operands */
+  const Unit *msua, *msub;		/* -> operand msus */
+  Unit *uc,  *msuc;			/* -> result and its msu */
+  Int	msudigs;			/* digits in res msu */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  if (lhs->exponent!=0 || decNumberIsSpecial(lhs) || decNumberIsNegative(lhs)
+   || rhs->exponent!=0 || decNumberIsSpecial(rhs) || decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {
+    decStatus(res, DEC_Invalid_operation, set);
+    return res;
+    }
+
+  /* operands are valid */
+  ua=lhs->lsu;				/* bottom-up */
+  ub=rhs->lsu;				/* .. */
+  uc=res->lsu;				/* .. */
+  msua=ua+D2U(lhs->digits)-1;		/* -> msu of lhs */
+  msub=ub+D2U(rhs->digits)-1;		/* -> msu of rhs */
+  msuc=uc+D2U(set->digits)-1;		/* -> msu of result */
+  msudigs=MSUDIGITS(set->digits);	/* [faster than remainder] */
+  for (; uc<=msuc; ua++, ub++, uc++) {	/* Unit loop */
+    Unit a, b;				/* extract units */
+    if (ua>msua) a=0;
+     else a=*ua;
+    if (ub>msub) b=0;
+     else b=*ub;
+    *uc=0;				/* can now write back */
+    if (a|b) {				/* maybe 1 bits to examine */
+      Int i, j;
+      *uc=0;				/* can now write back */
+      /* This loop could be unrolled and/or use BIN2BCD tables */
+      for (i=0; i<DECDPUN; i++) {
+	if (a&b&1) *uc=*uc+(Unit)powers[i];  /* effect AND */
+	j=a%10;
+	a=a/10;
+	j|=b%10;
+	b=b/10;
+	if (j>1) {
+	  decStatus(res, DEC_Invalid_operation, set);
+	  return res;
+	  }
+	if (uc==msuc && i==msudigs-1) break; /* just did final digit */
+	} /* each digit */
+      } /* both OK */
+    } /* each unit */
+  /* [here uc-1 is the msu of the result] */
+  res->digits=decGetDigits(res->lsu, uc-res->lsu);
+  res->exponent=0;			/* integer */
+  res->bits=0;				/* sign=0 */
+  return res;  /* [no status to set] */
+  } /* decNumberAnd */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberCompare -- compare two Numbers			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A ? B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X?X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for one digit (or NaN).			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberCompare(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			     const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decCompareOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, COMPARE, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberCompare */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberCompareSignal -- compare, signalling on all NaNs	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A ? B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X?X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for one digit (or NaN).			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberCompareSignal(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+				   const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decCompareOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, COMPSIG, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberCompareSignal */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberCompareTotal -- compare two Numbers, using total ordering */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A ? B, under total ordering		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X?X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for one digit; the result will always be one of  */
+/* -1, 0, or 1.							      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberCompareTotal(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+				  const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decCompareOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, COMPTOTAL, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberCompareTotal */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberCompareTotalMag -- compare, total ordering of magnitudes  */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = |A| ? |B|, under total ordering		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X?X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for one digit; the result will always be one of  */
+/* -1, 0, or 1.							      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberCompareTotalMag(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+				     const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;		   /* accumulator */
+  uInt needbytes;		   /* for space calculations */
+  decNumber bufa[D2N(DECBUFFER+1)];/* +1 in case DECBUFFER=0 */
+  decNumber *allocbufa=NULL;	   /* -> allocated bufa, iff allocated */
+  decNumber bufb[D2N(DECBUFFER+1)];
+  decNumber *allocbufb=NULL;	   /* -> allocated bufb, iff allocated */
+  decNumber *a, *b;		   /* temporary pointers */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  do {					/* protect allocated storage */
+    /* if either is negative, take a copy and absolute */
+    if (decNumberIsNegative(lhs)) {	/* lhs<0 */
+      a=bufa;
+      needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(lhs->digits)-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+      if (needbytes>sizeof(bufa)) {	/* need malloc space */
+	allocbufa=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+	if (allocbufa==NULL) {		/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	  status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	  break;}
+	a=allocbufa;			/* use the allocated space */
+	}
+      decNumberCopy(a, lhs);		/* copy content */
+      a->bits&=~DECNEG;			/* .. and clear the sign */
+      lhs=a;				/* use copy from here on */
+      }
+    if (decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {	/* rhs<0 */
+      b=bufb;
+      needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(rhs->digits)-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+      if (needbytes>sizeof(bufb)) {	/* need malloc space */
+	allocbufb=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+	if (allocbufb==NULL) {		/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	  status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	  break;}
+	b=allocbufb;			/* use the allocated space */
+	}
+      decNumberCopy(b, rhs);		/* copy content */
+      b->bits&=~DECNEG;			/* .. and clear the sign */
+      rhs=b;				/* use copy from here on */
+      }
+    decCompareOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, COMPTOTAL, &status);
+    } while(0);				/* end protected */
+
+  if (allocbufa!=NULL) free(allocbufa); /* drop any storage used */
+  if (allocbufb!=NULL) free(allocbufb); /* .. */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberCompareTotalMag */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberDivide -- divide one number by another		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A / B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X/X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberDivide(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			    const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decDivideOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, DIVIDE, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberDivide */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberDivideInteger -- divide and return integer quotient	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A # B, where # is the integer divide operator  */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X#X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberDivideInteger(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+				   const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decDivideOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, DIVIDEINT, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberDivideInteger */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberExp -- exponentiation				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = exp(A)					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context; note that rounding mode has no effect	      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Mathematical function restrictions apply (see above); a NaN is     */
+/* returned with Invalid_operation if a restriction is violated.      */
+/*								      */
+/* Finite results will always be full precision and Inexact, except   */
+/* when A is a zero or -Infinity (giving 1 or 0 respectively).	      */
+/*								      */
+/* An Inexact result is rounded using DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN; it will    */
+/* almost always be correctly rounded, but may be up to 1 ulp in      */
+/* error in rare cases.						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This is a wrapper for decExpOp which can handle the slightly wider */
+/* (double) range needed by Ln (which has to be able to calculate     */
+/* exp(-a) where a can be the tiniest number (Ntiny).		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberExp(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			 decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* non-NULL if rounded rhs allocated */
+  #endif
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  /* Check restrictions; these restrictions ensure that if h=8 (see */
+  /* decExpOp) then the result will either overflow or underflow to 0. */
+  /* Other math functions restrict the input range, too, for inverses. */
+  /* If not violated then carry out the operation. */
+  if (!decCheckMath(rhs, set, &status)) do { /* protect allocation */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) {
+      /* reduce operand and set lostDigits status, as needed */
+      if (rhs->digits>set->digits) {
+	allocrhs=decRoundOperand(rhs, set, &status);
+	if (allocrhs==NULL) break;
+	rhs=allocrhs;
+	}
+      }
+    #endif
+    decExpOp(res, rhs, set, &status);
+    } while(0);				/* end protected */
+
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (allocrhs !=NULL) free(allocrhs);	/* drop any storage used */
+  #endif
+  /* apply significant status */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberExp */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberFMA -- fused multiply add				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes D = (A * B) + C with only one rounding	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is D, the result.  D may be A or B or C (e.g., X=FMA(X,X,X)) */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   fhs is C [far hand side]					      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* Mathematical function restrictions apply (see above); a NaN is     */
+/* returned with Invalid_operation if a restriction is violated.      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberFMA(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			 const decNumber *rhs, const decNumber *fhs,
+			 decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;		   /* accumulator */
+  decContext dcmul;		   /* context for the multiplication */
+  uInt needbytes;		   /* for space calculations */
+  decNumber bufa[D2N(DECBUFFER*2+1)];
+  decNumber *allocbufa=NULL;	   /* -> allocated bufa, iff allocated */
+  decNumber *acc;		   /* accumulator pointer */
+  decNumber dzero;		   /* work */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, fhs, DECUNUSED, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  do {					/* protect allocated storage */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) {		/* [undefined if subset] */
+      status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+      break;}
+    #endif
+    /* Check math restrictions [these ensure no overflow or underflow] */
+    if ((!decNumberIsSpecial(lhs) && decCheckMath(lhs, set, &status))
+     || (!decNumberIsSpecial(rhs) && decCheckMath(rhs, set, &status))
+     || (!decNumberIsSpecial(fhs) && decCheckMath(fhs, set, &status))) break;
+    /* set up context for multiply */
+    dcmul=*set;
+    dcmul.digits=lhs->digits+rhs->digits; /* just enough */
+    /* [The above may be an over-estimate for subset arithmetic, but that's OK] */
+    dcmul.emax=DEC_MAX_EMAX;		/* effectively unbounded .. */
+    dcmul.emin=DEC_MIN_EMIN;		/* [thanks to Math restrictions] */
+    /* set up decNumber space to receive the result of the multiply */
+    acc=bufa;				/* may fit */
+    needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(dcmul.digits)-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+    if (needbytes>sizeof(bufa)) {	/* need malloc space */
+      allocbufa=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+      if (allocbufa==NULL) {		/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	break;}
+      acc=allocbufa;			/* use the allocated space */
+      }
+    /* multiply with extended range and necessary precision */
+    /*printf("emin=%ld\n", dcmul.emin); */
+    decMultiplyOp(acc, lhs, rhs, &dcmul, &status);
+    /* Only Invalid operation (from sNaN or Inf * 0) is possible in */
+    /* status; if either is seen than ignore fhs (in case it is */
+    /* another sNaN) and set acc to NaN unless we had an sNaN */
+    /* [decMultiplyOp leaves that to caller] */
+    /* Note sNaN has to go through addOp to shorten payload if */
+    /* necessary */
+    if ((status&DEC_Invalid_operation)!=0) {
+      if (!(status&DEC_sNaN)) {		/* but be true invalid */
+	decNumberZero(res);		/* acc not yet set */
+	res->bits=DECNAN;
+	break;
+	}
+      decNumberZero(&dzero);		/* make 0 (any non-NaN would do) */
+      fhs=&dzero;			/* use that */
+      }
+    #if DECCHECK
+     else { /* multiply was OK */
+      if (status!=0) printf("Status=%08lx after FMA multiply\n", status);
+      }
+    #endif
+    /* add the third operand and result -> res, and all is done */
+    decAddOp(res, acc, fhs, set, 0, &status);
+    } while(0);				/* end protected */
+
+  if (allocbufa!=NULL) free(allocbufa); /* drop any storage used */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberFMA */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberInvert -- invert a Number, digitwise		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = ~A					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A (e.g., X=~X)		      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context (used for result length and error report)     */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Logical function restrictions apply (see above); a NaN is	      */
+/* returned with Invalid_operation if a restriction is violated.      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberInvert(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			    decContext *set) {
+  const Unit *ua, *msua;		/* -> operand and its msu */
+  Unit	*uc, *msuc;			/* -> result and its msu */
+  Int	msudigs;			/* digits in res msu */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  if (rhs->exponent!=0 || decNumberIsSpecial(rhs) || decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {
+    decStatus(res, DEC_Invalid_operation, set);
+    return res;
+    }
+  /* operand is valid */
+  ua=rhs->lsu;				/* bottom-up */
+  uc=res->lsu;				/* .. */
+  msua=ua+D2U(rhs->digits)-1;		/* -> msu of rhs */
+  msuc=uc+D2U(set->digits)-1;		/* -> msu of result */
+  msudigs=MSUDIGITS(set->digits);	/* [faster than remainder] */
+  for (; uc<=msuc; ua++, uc++) {	/* Unit loop */
+    Unit a;				/* extract unit */
+    Int	 i, j;				/* work */
+    if (ua>msua) a=0;
+     else a=*ua;
+    *uc=0;				/* can now write back */
+    /* always need to examine all bits in rhs */
+    /* This loop could be unrolled and/or use BIN2BCD tables */
+    for (i=0; i<DECDPUN; i++) {
+      if ((~a)&1) *uc=*uc+(Unit)powers[i];   /* effect INVERT */
+      j=a%10;
+      a=a/10;
+      if (j>1) {
+	decStatus(res, DEC_Invalid_operation, set);
+	return res;
+	}
+      if (uc==msuc && i==msudigs-1) break;   /* just did final digit */
+      } /* each digit */
+    } /* each unit */
+  /* [here uc-1 is the msu of the result] */
+  res->digits=decGetDigits(res->lsu, uc-res->lsu);
+  res->exponent=0;			/* integer */
+  res->bits=0;				/* sign=0 */
+  return res;  /* [no status to set] */
+  } /* decNumberInvert */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberLn -- natural logarithm				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = ln(A)					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context; note that rounding mode has no effect	      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Notable cases:						      */
+/*   A<0 -> Invalid						      */
+/*   A=0 -> -Infinity (Exact)					      */
+/*   A=+Infinity -> +Infinity (Exact)				      */
+/*   A=1 exactly -> 0 (Exact)					      */
+/*								      */
+/* Mathematical function restrictions apply (see above); a NaN is     */
+/* returned with Invalid_operation if a restriction is violated.      */
+/*								      */
+/* An Inexact result is rounded using DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN; it will    */
+/* almost always be correctly rounded, but may be up to 1 ulp in      */
+/* error in rare cases.						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This is a wrapper for decLnOp which can handle the slightly wider  */
+/* (+11) range needed by Ln, Log10, etc. (which may have to be able   */
+/* to calculate at p+e+2).					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberLn(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;		   /* accumulator */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* non-NULL if rounded rhs allocated */
+  #endif
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  /* Check restrictions; this is a math function; if not violated */
+  /* then carry out the operation. */
+  if (!decCheckMath(rhs, set, &status)) do { /* protect allocation */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) {
+      /* reduce operand and set lostDigits status, as needed */
+      if (rhs->digits>set->digits) {
+	allocrhs=decRoundOperand(rhs, set, &status);
+	if (allocrhs==NULL) break;
+	rhs=allocrhs;
+	}
+      /* special check in subset for rhs=0 */
+      if (ISZERO(rhs)) {		/* +/- zeros -> error */
+	status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	break;}
+      } /* extended=0 */
+    #endif
+    decLnOp(res, rhs, set, &status);
+    } while(0);				/* end protected */
+
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (allocrhs !=NULL) free(allocrhs);	/* drop any storage used */
+  #endif
+  /* apply significant status */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberLn */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberLogB - get adjusted exponent, by 754r rules		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = adjustedexponent(A)			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context, used only for digits and status	      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for 10 digits (A might have 10**9 digits and     */
+/* an exponent of +999999999, or one digit and an exponent of	      */
+/* -1999999999).						      */
+/*								      */
+/* This returns the adjusted exponent of A after (in theory) padding  */
+/* with zeros on the right to set->digits digits while keeping the    */
+/* same value.	The exponent is not limited by emin/emax.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* Notable cases:						      */
+/*   A<0 -> Use |A|						      */
+/*   A=0 -> -Infinity (Division by zero)			      */
+/*   A=Infinite -> +Infinity (Exact)				      */
+/*   A=1 exactly -> 0 (Exact)					      */
+/*   NaNs are propagated as usual				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberLogB(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			  decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;		   /* accumulator */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  /* NaNs as usual; Infinities return +Infinity; 0->oops */
+  if (decNumberIsNaN(rhs)) decNaNs(res, rhs, NULL, set, &status);
+   else if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs)) decNumberCopyAbs(res, rhs);
+   else if (decNumberIsZero(rhs)) {
+    decNumberZero(res);			/* prepare for Infinity */
+    res->bits=DECNEG|DECINF;		/* -Infinity */
+    status|=DEC_Division_by_zero;	/* as per 754r */
+    }
+   else { /* finite non-zero */
+    Int ae=rhs->exponent+rhs->digits-1; /* adjusted exponent */
+    decNumberFromInt32(res, ae);	/* lay it out */
+    }
+
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberLogB */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberLog10 -- logarithm in base 10			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = log10(A)					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context; note that rounding mode has no effect	      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Notable cases:						      */
+/*   A<0 -> Invalid						      */
+/*   A=0 -> -Infinity (Exact)					      */
+/*   A=+Infinity -> +Infinity (Exact)				      */
+/*   A=10**n (if n is an integer) -> n (Exact)			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Mathematical function restrictions apply (see above); a NaN is     */
+/* returned with Invalid_operation if a restriction is violated.      */
+/*								      */
+/* An Inexact result is rounded using DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN; it will    */
+/* almost always be correctly rounded, but may be up to 1 ulp in      */
+/* error in rare cases.						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This calculates ln(A)/ln(10) using appropriate precision.  For     */
+/* ln(A) this is the max(p, rhs->digits + t) + 3, where p is the      */
+/* requested digits and t is the number of digits in the exponent     */
+/* (maximum 6).	 For ln(10) it is p + 3; this is often handled by the */
+/* fastpath in decLnOp.	 The final division is done to the requested  */
+/* precision.							      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberLog10(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			  decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0, ignore=0;	   /* status accumulators */
+  uInt needbytes;		   /* for space calculations */
+  Int p;			   /* working precision */
+  Int t;			   /* digits in exponent of A */
+
+  /* buffers for a and b working decimals */
+  /* (adjustment calculator, same size) */
+  decNumber bufa[D2N(DECBUFFER+2)];
+  decNumber *allocbufa=NULL;	   /* -> allocated bufa, iff allocated */
+  decNumber *a=bufa;		   /* temporary a */
+  decNumber bufb[D2N(DECBUFFER+2)];
+  decNumber *allocbufb=NULL;	   /* -> allocated bufb, iff allocated */
+  decNumber *b=bufb;		   /* temporary b */
+  decNumber bufw[D2N(10)];	   /* working 2-10 digit number */
+  decNumber *w=bufw;		   /* .. */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* non-NULL if rounded rhs allocated */
+  #endif
+
+  decContext aset;		   /* working context */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  /* Check restrictions; this is a math function; if not violated */
+  /* then carry out the operation. */
+  if (!decCheckMath(rhs, set, &status)) do { /* protect malloc */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) {
+      /* reduce operand and set lostDigits status, as needed */
+      if (rhs->digits>set->digits) {
+	allocrhs=decRoundOperand(rhs, set, &status);
+	if (allocrhs==NULL) break;
+	rhs=allocrhs;
+	}
+      /* special check in subset for rhs=0 */
+      if (ISZERO(rhs)) {		/* +/- zeros -> error */
+	status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	break;}
+      } /* extended=0 */
+    #endif
+
+    decContextDefault(&aset, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64); /* clean context */
+
+    /* handle exact powers of 10; only check if +ve finite */
+    if (!(rhs->bits&(DECNEG|DECSPECIAL)) && !ISZERO(rhs)) {
+      Int residue=0;		   /* (no residue) */
+      uInt copystat=0;		   /* clean status */
+
+      /* round to a single digit... */
+      aset.digits=1;
+      decCopyFit(w, rhs, &aset, &residue, &copystat); /* copy & shorten */
+      /* if exact and the digit is 1, rhs is a power of 10 */
+      if (!(copystat&DEC_Inexact) && w->lsu[0]==1) {
+	/* the exponent, conveniently, is the power of 10; making */
+	/* this the result needs a little care as it might not fit, */
+	/* so first convert it into the working number, and then move */
+	/* to res */
+	decNumberFromInt32(w, w->exponent);
+	residue=0;
+	decCopyFit(res, w, set, &residue, &status); /* copy & round */
+	decFinish(res, set, &residue, &status);	    /* cleanup/set flags */
+	break;
+	} /* not a power of 10 */
+      } /* not a candidate for exact */
+
+    /* simplify the information-content calculation to use 'total */
+    /* number of digits in a, including exponent' as compared to the */
+    /* requested digits, as increasing this will only rarely cost an */
+    /* iteration in ln(a) anyway */
+    t=6;				/* it can never be >6 */
+
+    /* allocate space when needed... */
+    p=(rhs->digits+t>set->digits?rhs->digits+t:set->digits)+3;
+    needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(p)-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+    if (needbytes>sizeof(bufa)) {	/* need malloc space */
+      allocbufa=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+      if (allocbufa==NULL) {		/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	break;}
+      a=allocbufa;			/* use the allocated space */
+      }
+    aset.digits=p;			/* as calculated */
+    aset.emax=DEC_MAX_MATH;		/* usual bounds */
+    aset.emin=-DEC_MAX_MATH;		/* .. */
+    aset.clamp=0;			/* and no concrete format */
+    decLnOp(a, rhs, &aset, &status);	/* a=ln(rhs) */
+
+    /* skip the division if the result so far is infinite, NaN, or */
+    /* zero, or there was an error; note NaN from sNaN needs copy */
+    if (status&DEC_NaNs && !(status&DEC_sNaN)) break;
+    if (a->bits&DECSPECIAL || ISZERO(a)) {
+      decNumberCopy(res, a);		/* [will fit] */
+      break;}
+
+    /* for ln(10) an extra 3 digits of precision are needed */
+    p=set->digits+3;
+    needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(p)-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+    if (needbytes>sizeof(bufb)) {	/* need malloc space */
+      allocbufb=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+      if (allocbufb==NULL) {		/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	break;}
+      b=allocbufb;			/* use the allocated space */
+      }
+    decNumberZero(w);			/* set up 10... */
+    #if DECDPUN==1
+    w->lsu[1]=1; w->lsu[0]=0;		/* .. */
+    #else
+    w->lsu[0]=10;			/* .. */
+    #endif
+    w->digits=2;			/* .. */
+
+    aset.digits=p;
+    decLnOp(b, w, &aset, &ignore);	/* b=ln(10) */
+
+    aset.digits=set->digits;		/* for final divide */
+    decDivideOp(res, a, b, &aset, DIVIDE, &status); /* into result */
+    } while(0);				/* [for break] */
+
+  if (allocbufa!=NULL) free(allocbufa); /* drop any storage used */
+  if (allocbufb!=NULL) free(allocbufb); /* .. */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (allocrhs !=NULL) free(allocrhs);	/* .. */
+  #endif
+  /* apply significant status */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberLog10 */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberMax -- compare two Numbers and return the maximum	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A ? B, returning the maximum by 754R rules     */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X?X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberMax(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			 const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decCompareOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, COMPMAX, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberMax */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberMaxMag -- compare and return the maximum by magnitude     */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A ? B, returning the maximum by 754R rules     */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X?X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberMaxMag(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			 const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decCompareOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, COMPMAXMAG, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberMaxMag */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberMin -- compare two Numbers and return the minimum	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A ? B, returning the minimum by 754R rules     */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X?X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberMin(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			 const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decCompareOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, COMPMIN, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberMin */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberMinMag -- compare and return the minimum by magnitude     */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A ? B, returning the minimum by 754R rules     */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X?X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberMinMag(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			 const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decCompareOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, COMPMINMAG, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberMinMag */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberMinus -- prefix minus operator			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = 0 - A					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* See also decNumberCopyNegate for a quiet bitwise version of this.  */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Simply use AddOp for the subtract, which will do the necessary.    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberMinus(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			   decContext *set) {
+  decNumber dzero;
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  decNumberZero(&dzero);		/* make 0 */
+  dzero.exponent=rhs->exponent;		/* [no coefficient expansion] */
+  decAddOp(res, &dzero, rhs, set, DECNEG, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberMinus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberNextMinus -- next towards -Infinity			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A - infinitesimal, rounded towards -Infinity   */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* This is a generalization of 754r NextDown.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberNextMinus(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			       decContext *set) {
+  decNumber dtiny;			     /* constant */
+  decContext workset=*set;		     /* work */
+  uInt status=0;			     /* accumulator */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  /* +Infinity is the special case */
+  if ((rhs->bits&(DECINF|DECNEG))==DECINF) {
+    decSetMaxValue(res, set);		     /* is +ve */
+    /* there is no status to set */
+    return res;
+    }
+  decNumberZero(&dtiny);		     /* start with 0 */
+  dtiny.lsu[0]=1;			     /* make number that is .. */
+  dtiny.exponent=DEC_MIN_EMIN-1;	     /* .. smaller than tiniest */
+  workset.round=DEC_ROUND_FLOOR;
+  decAddOp(res, rhs, &dtiny, &workset, DECNEG, &status);
+  status&=DEC_Invalid_operation|DEC_sNaN;    /* only sNaN Invalid please */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberNextMinus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberNextPlus -- next towards +Infinity			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A + infinitesimal, rounded towards +Infinity   */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* This is a generalization of 754r NextUp.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberNextPlus(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			      decContext *set) {
+  decNumber dtiny;			     /* constant */
+  decContext workset=*set;		     /* work */
+  uInt status=0;			     /* accumulator */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  /* -Infinity is the special case */
+  if ((rhs->bits&(DECINF|DECNEG))==(DECINF|DECNEG)) {
+    decSetMaxValue(res, set);
+    res->bits=DECNEG;			     /* negative */
+    /* there is no status to set */
+    return res;
+    }
+  decNumberZero(&dtiny);		     /* start with 0 */
+  dtiny.lsu[0]=1;			     /* make number that is .. */
+  dtiny.exponent=DEC_MIN_EMIN-1;	     /* .. smaller than tiniest */
+  workset.round=DEC_ROUND_CEILING;
+  decAddOp(res, rhs, &dtiny, &workset, 0, &status);
+  status&=DEC_Invalid_operation|DEC_sNaN;    /* only sNaN Invalid please */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberNextPlus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberNextToward -- next towards rhs			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A +/- infinitesimal, rounded towards	      */
+/*   +/-Infinity in the direction of B, as per 754r nextafter rules   */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A or B.			      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* This is a generalization of 754r NextAfter.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberNextToward(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+				const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  decNumber dtiny;			     /* constant */
+  decContext workset=*set;		     /* work */
+  Int result;				     /* .. */
+  uInt status=0;			     /* accumulator */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  if (decNumberIsNaN(lhs) || decNumberIsNaN(rhs)) {
+    decNaNs(res, lhs, rhs, set, &status);
+    }
+   else { /* Is numeric, so no chance of sNaN Invalid, etc. */
+    result=decCompare(lhs, rhs, 0);	/* sign matters */
+    if (result==BADINT) status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage; /* rare */
+     else { /* valid compare */
+      if (result==0) decNumberCopySign(res, lhs, rhs); /* easy */
+       else { /* differ: need NextPlus or NextMinus */
+	uByte sub;			/* add or subtract */
+	if (result<0) {			/* lhs<rhs, do nextplus */
+	  /* -Infinity is the special case */
+	  if ((lhs->bits&(DECINF|DECNEG))==(DECINF|DECNEG)) {
+	    decSetMaxValue(res, set);
+	    res->bits=DECNEG;		/* negative */
+	    return res;			/* there is no status to set */
+	    }
+	  workset.round=DEC_ROUND_CEILING;
+	  sub=0;			/* add, please */
+	  } /* plus */
+	 else {				/* lhs>rhs, do nextminus */
+	  /* +Infinity is the special case */
+	  if ((lhs->bits&(DECINF|DECNEG))==DECINF) {
+	    decSetMaxValue(res, set);
+	    return res;			/* there is no status to set */
+	    }
+	  workset.round=DEC_ROUND_FLOOR;
+	  sub=DECNEG;			/* subtract, please */
+	  } /* minus */
+	decNumberZero(&dtiny);		/* start with 0 */
+	dtiny.lsu[0]=1;			/* make number that is .. */
+	dtiny.exponent=DEC_MIN_EMIN-1;	/* .. smaller than tiniest */
+	decAddOp(res, lhs, &dtiny, &workset, sub, &status); /* + or - */
+	/* turn off exceptions if the result is a normal number */
+	/* (including Nmin), otherwise let all status through */
+	if (decNumberIsNormal(res, set)) status=0;
+	} /* unequal */
+      } /* compare OK */
+    } /* numeric */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberNextToward */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberOr -- OR two Numbers, digitwise			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A | B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X|X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context (used for result length and error report)     */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Logical function restrictions apply (see above); a NaN is	      */
+/* returned with Invalid_operation if a restriction is violated.      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberOr(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  const Unit *ua, *ub;			/* -> operands */
+  const Unit *msua, *msub;		/* -> operand msus */
+  Unit	*uc, *msuc;			/* -> result and its msu */
+  Int	msudigs;			/* digits in res msu */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  if (lhs->exponent!=0 || decNumberIsSpecial(lhs) || decNumberIsNegative(lhs)
+   || rhs->exponent!=0 || decNumberIsSpecial(rhs) || decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {
+    decStatus(res, DEC_Invalid_operation, set);
+    return res;
+    }
+  /* operands are valid */
+  ua=lhs->lsu;				/* bottom-up */
+  ub=rhs->lsu;				/* .. */
+  uc=res->lsu;				/* .. */
+  msua=ua+D2U(lhs->digits)-1;		/* -> msu of lhs */
+  msub=ub+D2U(rhs->digits)-1;		/* -> msu of rhs */
+  msuc=uc+D2U(set->digits)-1;		/* -> msu of result */
+  msudigs=MSUDIGITS(set->digits);	/* [faster than remainder] */
+  for (; uc<=msuc; ua++, ub++, uc++) {	/* Unit loop */
+    Unit a, b;				/* extract units */
+    if (ua>msua) a=0;
+     else a=*ua;
+    if (ub>msub) b=0;
+     else b=*ub;
+    *uc=0;				/* can now write back */
+    if (a|b) {				/* maybe 1 bits to examine */
+      Int i, j;
+      /* This loop could be unrolled and/or use BIN2BCD tables */
+      for (i=0; i<DECDPUN; i++) {
+	if ((a|b)&1) *uc=*uc+(Unit)powers[i];	  /* effect OR */
+	j=a%10;
+	a=a/10;
+	j|=b%10;
+	b=b/10;
+	if (j>1) {
+	  decStatus(res, DEC_Invalid_operation, set);
+	  return res;
+	  }
+	if (uc==msuc && i==msudigs-1) break;	  /* just did final digit */
+	} /* each digit */
+      } /* non-zero */
+    } /* each unit */
+  /* [here uc-1 is the msu of the result] */
+  res->digits=decGetDigits(res->lsu, uc-res->lsu);
+  res->exponent=0;			/* integer */
+  res->bits=0;				/* sign=0 */
+  return res;  /* [no status to set] */
+  } /* decNumberOr */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberPlus -- prefix plus operator			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = 0 + A					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* See also decNumberCopy for a quiet bitwise version of this.	      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This simply uses AddOp; Add will take fast path after preparing A. */
+/* Performance is a concern here, as this routine is often used to    */
+/* check operands and apply rounding and overflow/underflow testing.  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberPlus(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			  decContext *set) {
+  decNumber dzero;
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  decNumberZero(&dzero);		/* make 0 */
+  dzero.exponent=rhs->exponent;		/* [no coefficient expansion] */
+  decAddOp(res, &dzero, rhs, set, 0, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberPlus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberMultiply -- multiply two Numbers			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A x B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X+X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberMultiply(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			      const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;		   /* accumulator */
+  decMultiplyOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberMultiply */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberPower -- raise a number to a power			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A ** B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X**X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Mathematical function restrictions apply (see above); a NaN is     */
+/* returned with Invalid_operation if a restriction is violated.      */
+/*								      */
+/* However, if 1999999997<=B<=999999999 and B is an integer then the  */
+/* restrictions on A and the context are relaxed to the usual bounds, */
+/* for compatibility with the earlier (integer power only) version    */
+/* of this function.						      */
+/*								      */
+/* When B is an integer, the result may be exact, even if rounded.    */
+/*								      */
+/* The final result is rounded according to the context; it will      */
+/* almost always be correctly rounded, but may be up to 1 ulp in      */
+/* error in rare cases.						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberPower(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			   const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  decNumber *alloclhs=NULL;	   /* non-NULL if rounded lhs allocated */
+  decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* .., rhs */
+  #endif
+  decNumber *allocdac=NULL;	   /* -> allocated acc buffer, iff used */
+  decNumber *allocinv=NULL;	   /* -> allocated 1/x buffer, iff used */
+  Int	reqdigits=set->digits;	   /* requested DIGITS */
+  Int	n;			   /* rhs in binary */
+  Flag	rhsint=0;		   /* 1 if rhs is an integer */
+  Flag	useint=0;		   /* 1 if can use integer calculation */
+  Flag	isoddint=0;		   /* 1 if rhs is an integer and odd */
+  Int	i;			   /* work */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  Int	dropped;		   /* .. */
+  #endif
+  uInt	needbytes;		   /* buffer size needed */
+  Flag	seenbit;		   /* seen a bit while powering */
+  Int	residue=0;		   /* rounding residue */
+  uInt	status=0;		   /* accumulators */
+  uByte bits=0;			   /* result sign if errors */
+  decContext aset;		   /* working context */
+  decNumber dnOne;		   /* work value 1... */
+  /* local accumulator buffer [a decNumber, with digits+elength+1 digits] */
+  decNumber dacbuff[D2N(DECBUFFER+9)];
+  decNumber *dac=dacbuff;	   /* -> result accumulator */
+  /* same again for possible 1/lhs calculation */
+  decNumber invbuff[D2N(DECBUFFER+9)];
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  do {				   /* protect allocated storage */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) { /* reduce operands and set status, as needed */
+      if (lhs->digits>reqdigits) {
+	alloclhs=decRoundOperand(lhs, set, &status);
+	if (alloclhs==NULL) break;
+	lhs=alloclhs;
+	}
+      if (rhs->digits>reqdigits) {
+	allocrhs=decRoundOperand(rhs, set, &status);
+	if (allocrhs==NULL) break;
+	rhs=allocrhs;
+	}
+      }
+    #endif
+    /* [following code does not require input rounding] */
+
+    /* handle NaNs and rhs Infinity (lhs infinity is harder) */
+    if (SPECIALARGS) {
+      if (decNumberIsNaN(lhs) || decNumberIsNaN(rhs)) { /* NaNs */
+	decNaNs(res, lhs, rhs, set, &status);
+	break;}
+      if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs)) {	/* rhs Infinity */
+	Flag rhsneg=rhs->bits&DECNEG;	/* save rhs sign */
+	if (decNumberIsNegative(lhs)	/* lhs<0 */
+	 && !decNumberIsZero(lhs))	/* .. */
+	  status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	 else {				/* lhs >=0 */
+	  decNumberZero(&dnOne);	/* set up 1 */
+	  dnOne.lsu[0]=1;
+	  decNumberCompare(dac, lhs, &dnOne, set); /* lhs ? 1 */
+	  decNumberZero(res);		/* prepare for 0/1/Infinity */
+	  if (decNumberIsNegative(dac)) {    /* lhs<1 */
+	    if (rhsneg) res->bits|=DECINF;   /* +Infinity [else is +0] */
+	    }
+	   else if (dac->lsu[0]==0) {	     /* lhs=1 */
+	    /* 1**Infinity is inexact, so return fully-padded 1.0000 */
+	    Int shift=set->digits-1;
+	    *res->lsu=1;		     /* was 0, make int 1 */
+	    res->digits=decShiftToMost(res->lsu, 1, shift);
+	    res->exponent=-shift;	     /* make 1.0000... */
+	    status|=DEC_Inexact|DEC_Rounded; /* deemed inexact */
+	    }
+	   else {			     /* lhs>1 */
+	    if (!rhsneg) res->bits|=DECINF;  /* +Infinity [else is +0] */
+	    }
+	  } /* lhs>=0 */
+	break;}
+      /* [lhs infinity drops through] */
+      } /* specials */
+
+    /* Original rhs may be an integer that fits and is in range */
+    n=decGetInt(rhs);
+    if (n!=BADINT) {			/* it is an integer */
+      rhsint=1;				/* record the fact for 1**n */
+      isoddint=(Flag)n&1;		/* [works even if big] */
+      if (n!=BIGEVEN && n!=BIGODD)	/* can use integer path? */
+	useint=1;			/* looks good */
+      }
+
+    if (decNumberIsNegative(lhs)	/* -x .. */
+      && isoddint) bits=DECNEG;		/* .. to an odd power */
+
+    /* handle LHS infinity */
+    if (decNumberIsInfinite(lhs)) {	/* [NaNs already handled] */
+      uByte rbits=rhs->bits;		/* save */
+      decNumberZero(res);		/* prepare */
+      if (n==0) *res->lsu=1;		/* [-]Inf**0 => 1 */
+       else {
+	/* -Inf**nonint -> error */
+	if (!rhsint && decNumberIsNegative(lhs)) {
+	  status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;     /* -Inf**nonint is error */
+	  break;}
+	if (!(rbits & DECNEG)) bits|=DECINF; /* was not a **-n */
+	/* [otherwise will be 0 or -0] */
+	res->bits=bits;
+	}
+      break;}
+
+    /* similarly handle LHS zero */
+    if (decNumberIsZero(lhs)) {
+      if (n==0) {			     /* 0**0 => Error */
+	#if DECSUBSET
+	if (!set->extended) {		     /* [unless subset] */
+	  decNumberZero(res);
+	  *res->lsu=1;			     /* return 1 */
+	  break;}
+	#endif
+	status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	}
+       else {				     /* 0**x */
+	uByte rbits=rhs->bits;		     /* save */
+	if (rbits & DECNEG) {		     /* was a 0**(-n) */
+	  #if DECSUBSET
+	  if (!set->extended) {		     /* [bad if subset] */
+	    status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	    break;}
+	  #endif
+	  bits|=DECINF;
+	  }
+	decNumberZero(res);		     /* prepare */
+	/* [otherwise will be 0 or -0] */
+	res->bits=bits;
+	}
+      break;}
+
+    /* here both lhs and rhs are finite; rhs==0 is handled in the */
+    /* integer path.  Next handle the non-integer cases */
+    if (!useint) {			/* non-integral rhs */
+      /* any -ve lhs is bad, as is either operand or context out of */
+      /* bounds */
+      if (decNumberIsNegative(lhs)) {
+	status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	break;}
+      if (decCheckMath(lhs, set, &status)
+       || decCheckMath(rhs, set, &status)) break; /* variable status */
+
+      decContextDefault(&aset, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64); /* clean context */
+      aset.emax=DEC_MAX_MATH;		/* usual bounds */
+      aset.emin=-DEC_MAX_MATH;		/* .. */
+      aset.clamp=0;			/* and no concrete format */
+
+      /* calculate the result using exp(ln(lhs)*rhs), which can */
+      /* all be done into the accumulator, dac.	 The precision needed */
+      /* is enough to contain the full information in the lhs (which */
+      /* is the total digits, including exponent), or the requested */
+      /* precision, if larger, + 4; 6 is used for the exponent */
+      /* maximum length, and this is also used when it is shorter */
+      /* than the requested digits as it greatly reduces the >0.5 ulp */
+      /* cases at little cost (because Ln doubles digits each */
+      /* iteration so a few extra digits rarely causes an extra */
+      /* iteration) */
+      aset.digits=MAXI(lhs->digits, set->digits)+6+4;
+      } /* non-integer rhs */
+
+     else { /* rhs is in-range integer */
+      if (n==0) {			/* x**0 = 1 */
+	/* (0**0 was handled above) */
+	decNumberZero(res);		/* result=1 */
+	*res->lsu=1;			/* .. */
+	break;}
+      /* rhs is a non-zero integer */
+      if (n<0) n=-n;			/* use abs(n) */
+
+      aset=*set;			/* clone the context */
+      aset.round=DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN;	/* internally use balanced */
+      /* calculate the working DIGITS */
+      aset.digits=reqdigits+(rhs->digits+rhs->exponent)+2;
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      if (!set->extended) aset.digits--;     /* use classic precision */
+      #endif
+      /* it's an error if this is more than can be handled */
+      if (aset.digits>DECNUMMAXP) {status|=DEC_Invalid_operation; break;}
+      } /* integer path */
+
+    /* aset.digits is the count of digits for the accumulator needed */
+    /* if accumulator is too long for local storage, then allocate */
+    needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(aset.digits)-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+    /* [needbytes also used below if 1/lhs needed] */
+    if (needbytes>sizeof(dacbuff)) {
+      allocdac=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+      if (allocdac==NULL) {   /* hopeless -- abandon */
+	status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	break;}
+      dac=allocdac;	      /* use the allocated space */
+      }
+    /* here, aset is set up and accumulator is ready for use */
+
+    if (!useint) {			     /* non-integral rhs */
+      /* x ** y; special-case x=1 here as it will otherwise always */
+      /* reduce to integer 1; decLnOp has a fastpath which detects */
+      /* the case of x=1 */
+      decLnOp(dac, lhs, &aset, &status);     /* dac=ln(lhs) */
+      /* [no error possible, as lhs 0 already handled] */
+      if (ISZERO(dac)) {		     /* x==1, 1.0, etc. */
+	/* need to return fully-padded 1.0000 etc., but rhsint->1 */
+	*dac->lsu=1;			     /* was 0, make int 1 */
+	if (!rhsint) {			     /* add padding */
+	  Int shift=set->digits-1;
+	  dac->digits=decShiftToMost(dac->lsu, 1, shift);
+	  dac->exponent=-shift;		     /* make 1.0000... */
+	  status|=DEC_Inexact|DEC_Rounded;   /* deemed inexact */
+	  }
+	}
+       else {
+	decMultiplyOp(dac, dac, rhs, &aset, &status);  /* dac=dac*rhs */
+	decExpOp(dac, dac, &aset, &status);	       /* dac=exp(dac) */
+	}
+      /* and drop through for final rounding */
+      } /* non-integer rhs */
+
+     else {				/* carry on with integer */
+      decNumberZero(dac);		/* acc=1 */
+      *dac->lsu=1;			/* .. */
+
+      /* if a negative power the constant 1 is needed, and if not subset */
+      /* invert the lhs now rather than inverting the result later */
+      if (decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {	/* was a **-n [hence digits>0] */
+	decNumber *inv=invbuff;		/* asssume use fixed buffer */
+	decNumberCopy(&dnOne, dac);	/* dnOne=1;  [needed now or later] */
+	#if DECSUBSET
+	if (set->extended) {		/* need to calculate 1/lhs */
+	#endif
+	  /* divide lhs into 1, putting result in dac [dac=1/dac] */
+	  decDivideOp(dac, &dnOne, lhs, &aset, DIVIDE, &status);
+	  /* now locate or allocate space for the inverted lhs */
+	  if (needbytes>sizeof(invbuff)) {
+	    allocinv=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+	    if (allocinv==NULL) {	/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	      status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	      break;}
+	    inv=allocinv;		/* use the allocated space */
+	    }
+	  /* [inv now points to big-enough buffer or allocated storage] */
+	  decNumberCopy(inv, dac);	/* copy the 1/lhs */
+	  decNumberCopy(dac, &dnOne);	/* restore acc=1 */
+	  lhs=inv;			/* .. and go forward with new lhs */
+	#if DECSUBSET
+	  }
+	#endif
+	}
+
+      /* Raise-to-the-power loop... */
+      seenbit=0;		   /* set once a 1-bit is encountered */
+      for (i=1;;i++){		   /* for each bit [top bit ignored] */
+	/* abandon if had overflow or terminal underflow */
+	if (status & (DEC_Overflow|DEC_Underflow)) { /* interesting? */
+	  if (status&DEC_Overflow || ISZERO(dac)) break;
+	  }
+	/* [the following two lines revealed an optimizer bug in a C++ */
+	/* compiler, with symptom: 5**3 -> 25, when n=n+n was used] */
+	n=n<<1;			   /* move next bit to testable position */
+	if (n<0) {		   /* top bit is set */
+	  seenbit=1;		   /* OK, significant bit seen */
+	  decMultiplyOp(dac, dac, lhs, &aset, &status); /* dac=dac*x */
+	  }
+	if (i==31) break;	   /* that was the last bit */
+	if (!seenbit) continue;	   /* no need to square 1 */
+	decMultiplyOp(dac, dac, dac, &aset, &status); /* dac=dac*dac [square] */
+	} /*i*/ /* 32 bits */
+
+      /* complete internal overflow or underflow processing */
+      if (status & (DEC_Overflow|DEC_Underflow)) {
+	#if DECSUBSET
+	/* If subset, and power was negative, reverse the kind of -erflow */
+	/* [1/x not yet done] */
+	if (!set->extended && decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {
+	  if (status & DEC_Overflow)
+	    status^=DEC_Overflow | DEC_Underflow | DEC_Subnormal;
+	   else { /* trickier -- Underflow may or may not be set */
+	    status&=~(DEC_Underflow | DEC_Subnormal); /* [one or both] */
+	    status|=DEC_Overflow;
+	    }
+	  }
+	#endif
+	dac->bits=(dac->bits & ~DECNEG) | bits; /* force correct sign */
+	/* round subnormals [to set.digits rather than aset.digits] */
+	/* or set overflow result similarly as required */
+	decFinalize(dac, set, &residue, &status);
+	decNumberCopy(res, dac);   /* copy to result (is now OK length) */
+	break;
+	}
+
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      if (!set->extended &&		     /* subset math */
+	  decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {	     /* was a **-n [hence digits>0] */
+	/* so divide result into 1 [dac=1/dac] */
+	decDivideOp(dac, &dnOne, dac, &aset, DIVIDE, &status);
+	}
+      #endif
+      } /* rhs integer path */
+
+    /* reduce result to the requested length and copy to result */
+    decCopyFit(res, dac, set, &residue, &status);
+    decFinish(res, set, &residue, &status);  /* final cleanup */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) decTrim(res, set, 0, &dropped); /* trailing zeros */
+    #endif
+    } while(0);				/* end protected */
+
+  if (allocdac!=NULL) free(allocdac);	/* drop any storage used */
+  if (allocinv!=NULL) free(allocinv);	/* .. */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (alloclhs!=NULL) free(alloclhs);	/* .. */
+  if (allocrhs!=NULL) free(allocrhs);	/* .. */
+  #endif
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberPower */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberQuantize -- force exponent to requested value	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = op(A, B), where op adjusts the coefficient     */
+/*   of C (by rounding or shifting) such that the exponent (-scale)   */
+/*   of C has exponent of B.  The numerical value of C will equal A,  */
+/*   except for the effects of any rounding that occurred.	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A or B			      */
+/*   lhs is A, the number to adjust				      */
+/*   rhs is B, the number with exponent to match		      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Unless there is an error or the result is infinite, the exponent   */
+/* after the operation is guaranteed to be equal to that of B.	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberQuantize(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			      const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decQuantizeOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, 1, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberQuantize */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberReduce -- remove trailing zeros			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = 0 + A, and normalizes the result		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Previously known as Normalize */
+decNumber * decNumberNormalize(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			       decContext *set) {
+  return decNumberReduce(res, rhs, set);
+  } /* decNumberNormalize */
+
+decNumber * decNumberReduce(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+			    decContext *set) {
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* non-NULL if rounded rhs allocated */
+  #endif
+  uInt status=0;		   /* as usual */
+  Int  residue=0;		   /* as usual */
+  Int  dropped;			   /* work */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  do {				   /* protect allocated storage */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) {
+      /* reduce operand and set lostDigits status, as needed */
+      if (rhs->digits>set->digits) {
+	allocrhs=decRoundOperand(rhs, set, &status);
+	if (allocrhs==NULL) break;
+	rhs=allocrhs;
+	}
+      }
+    #endif
+    /* [following code does not require input rounding] */
+
+    /* Infinities copy through; NaNs need usual treatment */
+    if (decNumberIsNaN(rhs)) {
+      decNaNs(res, rhs, NULL, set, &status);
+      break;
+      }
+
+    /* reduce result to the requested length and copy to result */
+    decCopyFit(res, rhs, set, &residue, &status); /* copy & round */
+    decFinish(res, set, &residue, &status);	  /* cleanup/set flags */
+    decTrim(res, set, 1, &dropped);		  /* normalize in place */
+    } while(0);				     /* end protected */
+
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (allocrhs !=NULL) free(allocrhs);	     /* .. */
+  #endif
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);/* then report status */
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberReduce */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberRescale -- force exponent to requested value	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = op(A, B), where op adjusts the coefficient     */
+/*   of C (by rounding or shifting) such that the exponent (-scale)   */
+/*   of C has the value B.  The numerical value of C will equal A,    */
+/*   except for the effects of any rounding that occurred.	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A or B			      */
+/*   lhs is A, the number to adjust				      */
+/*   rhs is B, the requested exponent				      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Unless there is an error or the result is infinite, the exponent   */
+/* after the operation is guaranteed to be equal to B.		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberRescale(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			     const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decQuantizeOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, 0, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberRescale */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberRemainder -- divide and return remainder		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A % B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X%X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberRemainder(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			       const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decDivideOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, REMAINDER, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberRemainder */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberRemainderNear -- divide and return remainder from nearest */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A % B, where % is the IEEE remainder operator  */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X%X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberRemainderNear(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+				   const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+  decDivideOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, REMNEAR, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberRemainderNear */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberRotate -- rotate the coefficient of a Number left/right   */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A rot B	(in base ten and rotating set->digits */
+/*   digits).							      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=XrotX)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B, the number of digits to rotate (-ve to right)	      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* The digits of the coefficient of A are rotated to the left (if B   */
+/* is positive) or to the right (if B is negative) without adjusting  */
+/* the exponent or the sign of A.  If lhs->digits is less than	      */
+/* set->digits the coefficient is padded with zeros on the left	      */
+/* before the rotate.  Any leading zeros in the result are removed    */
+/* as usual.							      */
+/*								      */
+/* B must be an integer (q=0) and in the range -set->digits through   */
+/* +set->digits.						      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* NaNs are propagated as usual.  Infinities are unaffected (but      */
+/* B must be valid).  No status is set unless B is invalid or an      */
+/* operand is an sNaN.						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberRotate(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			   const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;	      /* accumulator */
+  Int  rotate;		      /* rhs as an Int */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  /* NaNs propagate as normal */
+  if (decNumberIsNaN(lhs) || decNumberIsNaN(rhs))
+    decNaNs(res, lhs, rhs, set, &status);
+   /* rhs must be an integer */
+   else if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs) || rhs->exponent!=0)
+    status=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+   else { /* both numeric, rhs is an integer */
+    rotate=decGetInt(rhs);		     /* [cannot fail] */
+    if (rotate==BADINT			     /* something bad .. */
+     || rotate==BIGODD || rotate==BIGEVEN    /* .. very big .. */
+     || abs(rotate)>set->digits)	     /* .. or out of range */
+      status=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+     else {				     /* rhs is OK */
+      decNumberCopy(res, lhs);
+      /* convert -ve rotate to equivalent positive rotation */
+      if (rotate<0) rotate=set->digits+rotate;
+      if (rotate!=0 && rotate!=set->digits   /* zero or full rotation */
+       && !decNumberIsInfinite(res)) {	     /* lhs was infinite */
+	/* left-rotate to do; 0 < rotate < set->digits */
+	uInt units, shift;		     /* work */
+	uInt msudigits;			     /* digits in result msu */
+	Unit *msu=res->lsu+D2U(res->digits)-1;	  /* current msu */
+	Unit *msumax=res->lsu+D2U(set->digits)-1; /* rotation msu */
+	for (msu++; msu<=msumax; msu++) *msu=0;	  /* ensure high units=0 */
+	res->digits=set->digits;		  /* now full-length */
+	msudigits=MSUDIGITS(res->digits);	  /* actual digits in msu */
+
+	/* rotation here is done in-place, in three steps */
+	/* 1. shift all to least up to one unit to unit-align final */
+	/*    lsd [any digits shifted out are rotated to the left, */
+	/*    abutted to the original msd (which may require split)] */
+	/* */
+	/*    [if there are no whole units left to rotate, the */
+	/*    rotation is now complete] */
+	/* */
+	/* 2. shift to least, from below the split point only, so that */
+	/*    the final msd is in the right place in its Unit [any */
+	/*    digits shifted out will fit exactly in the current msu, */
+	/*    left aligned, no split required] */
+	/* */
+	/* 3. rotate all the units by reversing left part, right */
+	/*    part, and then whole */
+	/* */
+	/* example: rotate right 8 digits (2 units + 2), DECDPUN=3. */
+	/* */
+	/*   start: 00a bcd efg hij klm npq */
+	/* */
+	/*	1a  000 0ab cde fgh|ijk lmn [pq saved] */
+	/*	1b  00p qab cde fgh|ijk lmn */
+	/* */
+	/*	2a  00p qab cde fgh|00i jkl [mn saved] */
+	/*	2b  mnp qab cde fgh|00i jkl */
+	/* */
+	/*	3a  fgh cde qab mnp|00i jkl */
+	/*	3b  fgh cde qab mnp|jkl 00i */
+	/*	3c  00i jkl mnp qab cde fgh */
+
+	/* Step 1: amount to shift is the partial right-rotate count */
+	rotate=set->digits-rotate;	/* make it right-rotate */
+	units=rotate/DECDPUN;		/* whole units to rotate */
+	shift=rotate%DECDPUN;		/* left-over digits count */
+	if (shift>0) {			/* not an exact number of units */
+	  uInt save=res->lsu[0]%powers[shift];	  /* save low digit(s) */
+	  decShiftToLeast(res->lsu, D2U(res->digits), shift);
+	  if (shift>msudigits) {	/* msumax-1 needs >0 digits */
+	    uInt rem=save%powers[shift-msudigits];/* split save */
+	    *msumax=(Unit)(save/powers[shift-msudigits]); /* and insert */
+	    *(msumax-1)=*(msumax-1)
+		       +(Unit)(rem*powers[DECDPUN-(shift-msudigits)]); /* .. */
+	    }
+	   else { /* all fits in msumax */
+	    *msumax=*msumax+(Unit)(save*powers[msudigits-shift]); /* [maybe *1] */
+	    }
+	  } /* digits shift needed */
+
+	/* If whole units to rotate... */
+	if (units>0) {			/* some to do */
+	  /* Step 2: the units to touch are the whole ones in rotate, */
+	  /*   if any, and the shift is DECDPUN-msudigits (which may be */
+	  /*   0, again) */
+	  shift=DECDPUN-msudigits;
+	  if (shift>0) {		/* not an exact number of units */
+	    uInt save=res->lsu[0]%powers[shift];  /* save low digit(s) */
+	    decShiftToLeast(res->lsu, units, shift);
+	    *msumax=*msumax+(Unit)(save*powers[msudigits]);
+	    } /* partial shift needed */
+
+	  /* Step 3: rotate the units array using triple reverse */
+	  /* (reversing is easy and fast) */
+	  decReverse(res->lsu+units, msumax);	  /* left part */
+	  decReverse(res->lsu, res->lsu+units-1); /* right part */
+	  decReverse(res->lsu, msumax);		  /* whole */
+	  } /* whole units to rotate */
+	/* the rotation may have left an undetermined number of zeros */
+	/* on the left, so true length needs to be calculated */
+	res->digits=decGetDigits(res->lsu, msumax-res->lsu+1);
+	} /* rotate needed */
+      } /* rhs OK */
+    } /* numerics */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberRotate */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberSameQuantum -- test for equal exponents		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is the result number, which will contain either 0 or 1	      */
+/*   lhs is a number to test					      */
+/*   rhs is the second (usually a pattern)			      */
+/*								      */
+/* No errors are possible and no context is needed.		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberSameQuantum(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+				 const decNumber *rhs) {
+  Unit ret=0;			   /* return value */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, DECUNCONT)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  if (SPECIALARGS) {
+    if (decNumberIsNaN(lhs) && decNumberIsNaN(rhs)) ret=1;
+     else if (decNumberIsInfinite(lhs) && decNumberIsInfinite(rhs)) ret=1;
+     /* [anything else with a special gives 0] */
+    }
+   else if (lhs->exponent==rhs->exponent) ret=1;
+
+  decNumberZero(res);		   /* OK to overwrite an operand now */
+  *res->lsu=ret;
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberSameQuantum */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberScaleB -- multiply by a power of 10			      */
+/*								      */
+/* This computes C = A x 10**B where B is an integer (q=0) with	      */
+/* maximum magnitude 2*(emax+digits)				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A or B			      */
+/*   lhs is A, the number to adjust				      */
+/*   rhs is B, the requested power of ten to use		      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* The result may underflow or overflow.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberScaleB(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			    const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  Int  reqexp;		      /* requested exponent change [B] */
+  uInt status=0;	      /* accumulator */
+  Int  residue;		      /* work */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  /* Handle special values except lhs infinite */
+  if (decNumberIsNaN(lhs) || decNumberIsNaN(rhs))
+    decNaNs(res, lhs, rhs, set, &status);
+    /* rhs must be an integer */
+   else if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs) || rhs->exponent!=0)
+    status=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+   else {
+    /* lhs is a number; rhs is a finite with q==0 */
+    reqexp=decGetInt(rhs);		     /* [cannot fail] */
+    if (reqexp==BADINT			     /* something bad .. */
+     || reqexp==BIGODD || reqexp==BIGEVEN    /* .. very big .. */
+     || abs(reqexp)>(2*(set->digits+set->emax))) /* .. or out of range */
+      status=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+     else {				     /* rhs is OK */
+      decNumberCopy(res, lhs);		     /* all done if infinite lhs */
+      if (!decNumberIsInfinite(res)) {	     /* prepare to scale */
+	res->exponent+=reqexp;		     /* adjust the exponent */
+	residue=0;
+	decFinalize(res, set, &residue, &status); /* .. and check */
+	} /* finite LHS */
+      } /* rhs OK */
+    } /* rhs finite */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberScaleB */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberShift -- shift the coefficient of a Number left or right  */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A << B or C = A >> -B  (in base ten).	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X<<X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B, the number of digits to shift (-ve to right)	      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* The digits of the coefficient of A are shifted to the left (if B   */
+/* is positive) or to the right (if B is negative) without adjusting  */
+/* the exponent or the sign of A.				      */
+/*								      */
+/* B must be an integer (q=0) and in the range -set->digits through   */
+/* +set->digits.						      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* NaNs are propagated as usual.  Infinities are unaffected (but      */
+/* B must be valid).  No status is set unless B is invalid or an      */
+/* operand is an sNaN.						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberShift(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			   const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;	      /* accumulator */
+  Int  shift;		      /* rhs as an Int */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  /* NaNs propagate as normal */
+  if (decNumberIsNaN(lhs) || decNumberIsNaN(rhs))
+    decNaNs(res, lhs, rhs, set, &status);
+   /* rhs must be an integer */
+   else if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs) || rhs->exponent!=0)
+    status=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+   else { /* both numeric, rhs is an integer */
+    shift=decGetInt(rhs);		     /* [cannot fail] */
+    if (shift==BADINT			     /* something bad .. */
+     || shift==BIGODD || shift==BIGEVEN	     /* .. very big .. */
+     || abs(shift)>set->digits)		     /* .. or out of range */
+      status=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+     else {				     /* rhs is OK */
+      decNumberCopy(res, lhs);
+      if (shift!=0 && !decNumberIsInfinite(res)) { /* something to do */
+	if (shift>0) {			     /* to left */
+	  if (shift==set->digits) {	     /* removing all */
+	    *res->lsu=0;		     /* so place 0 */
+	    res->digits=1;		     /* .. */
+	    }
+	   else {			     /* */
+	    /* first remove leading digits if necessary */
+	    if (res->digits+shift>set->digits) {
+	      decDecap(res, res->digits+shift-set->digits);
+	      /* that updated res->digits; may have gone to 1 (for a */
+	      /* single digit or for zero */
+	      }
+	    if (res->digits>1 || *res->lsu)  /* if non-zero.. */
+	      res->digits=decShiftToMost(res->lsu, res->digits, shift);
+	    } /* partial left */
+	  } /* left */
+	 else { /* to right */
+	  if (-shift>=res->digits) {	     /* discarding all */
+	    *res->lsu=0;		     /* so place 0 */
+	    res->digits=1;		     /* .. */
+	    }
+	   else {
+	    decShiftToLeast(res->lsu, D2U(res->digits), -shift);
+	    res->digits-=(-shift);
+	    }
+	  } /* to right */
+	} /* non-0 non-Inf shift */
+      } /* rhs OK */
+    } /* numerics */
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberShift */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberSquareRoot -- square root operator			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = squareroot(A)				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context; note that rounding mode has no effect	      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This uses the following varying-precision algorithm in:	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   Properly Rounded Variable Precision Square Root, T. E. Hull and  */
+/*   A. Abrham, ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software, Vol 11 #3, */
+/*   pp229-237, ACM, September 1985.				      */
+/*								      */
+/* The square-root is calculated using Newton's method, after which   */
+/* a check is made to ensure the result is correctly rounded.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* % [Reformatted original Numerical Turing source code follows.]     */
+/* function sqrt(x : real) : real				      */
+/* % sqrt(x) returns the properly rounded approximation to the square */
+/* % root of x, in the precision of the calling environment, or it    */
+/* % fails if x < 0.						      */
+/* % t e hull and a abrham, august, 1984			      */
+/* if x <= 0 then						      */
+/*   if x < 0 then						      */
+/*     assert false						      */
+/*   else							      */
+/*     result 0							      */
+/*   end if							      */
+/* end if							      */
+/* var f := setexp(x, 0)  % fraction part of x	 [0.1 <= x < 1]	      */
+/* var e := getexp(x)	  % exponent part of x			      */
+/* var approx : real						      */
+/* if e mod 2 = 0  then						      */
+/*   approx := .259 + .819 * f	 % approx to root of f		      */
+/* else								      */
+/*   f := f/l0			 % adjustments			      */
+/*   e := e + 1			 %   for odd			      */
+/*   approx := .0819 + 2.59 * f	 %   exponent			      */
+/* end if							      */
+/*								      */
+/* var p:= 3							      */
+/* const maxp := currentprecision + 2				      */
+/* loop								      */
+/*   p := min(2*p - 2, maxp)	 % p = 4,6,10, . . . , maxp	      */
+/*   precision p						      */
+/*   approx := .5 * (approx + f/approx)				      */
+/*   exit when p = maxp						      */
+/* end loop							      */
+/*								      */
+/* % approx is now within 1 ulp of the properly rounded square root   */
+/* % of f; to ensure proper rounding, compare squares of (approx -    */
+/* % l/2 ulp) and (approx + l/2 ulp) with f.			      */
+/* p := currentprecision					      */
+/* begin							      */
+/*   precision p + 2						      */
+/*   const approxsubhalf := approx - setexp(.5, -p)		      */
+/*   if mulru(approxsubhalf, approxsubhalf) > f then		      */
+/*     approx := approx - setexp(.l, -p + 1)			      */
+/*   else							      */
+/*     const approxaddhalf := approx + setexp(.5, -p)		      */
+/*     if mulrd(approxaddhalf, approxaddhalf) < f then		      */
+/*	 approx := approx + setexp(.l, -p + 1)			      */
+/*     end if							      */
+/*   end if							      */
+/* end								      */
+/* result setexp(approx, e div 2)  % fix exponent		      */
+/* end sqrt							      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberSquareRoot(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+				decContext *set) {
+  decContext workset, approxset;   /* work contexts */
+  decNumber dzero;		   /* used for constant zero */
+  Int  maxp;			   /* largest working precision */
+  Int  workp;			   /* working precision */
+  Int  residue=0;		   /* rounding residue */
+  uInt status=0, ignore=0;	   /* status accumulators */
+  uInt rstatus;			   /* .. */
+  Int  exp;			   /* working exponent */
+  Int  ideal;			   /* ideal (preferred) exponent */
+  Int  needbytes;		   /* work */
+  Int  dropped;			   /* .. */
+
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* non-NULL if rounded rhs allocated */
+  #endif
+  /* buffer for f [needs +1 in case DECBUFFER 0] */
+  decNumber buff[D2N(DECBUFFER+1)];
+  /* buffer for a [needs +2 to match likely maxp] */
+  decNumber bufa[D2N(DECBUFFER+2)];
+  /* buffer for temporary, b [must be same size as a] */
+  decNumber bufb[D2N(DECBUFFER+2)];
+  decNumber *allocbuff=NULL;	   /* -> allocated buff, iff allocated */
+  decNumber *allocbufa=NULL;	   /* -> allocated bufa, iff allocated */
+  decNumber *allocbufb=NULL;	   /* -> allocated bufb, iff allocated */
+  decNumber *f=buff;		   /* reduced fraction */
+  decNumber *a=bufa;		   /* approximation to result */
+  decNumber *b=bufb;		   /* intermediate result */
+  /* buffer for temporary variable, up to 3 digits */
+  decNumber buft[D2N(3)];
+  decNumber *t=buft;		   /* up-to-3-digit constant or work */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  do {				   /* protect allocated storage */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) {
+      /* reduce operand and set lostDigits status, as needed */
+      if (rhs->digits>set->digits) {
+	allocrhs=decRoundOperand(rhs, set, &status);
+	if (allocrhs==NULL) break;
+	/* [Note: 'f' allocation below could reuse this buffer if */
+	/* used, but as this is rare they are kept separate for clarity.] */
+	rhs=allocrhs;
+	}
+      }
+    #endif
+    /* [following code does not require input rounding] */
+
+    /* handle infinities and NaNs */
+    if (SPECIALARG) {
+      if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs)) {	      /* an infinity */
+	if (decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	 else decNumberCopy(res, rhs);	      /* +Infinity */
+	}
+       else decNaNs(res, rhs, NULL, set, &status); /* a NaN */
+      break;
+      }
+
+    /* calculate the ideal (preferred) exponent [floor(exp/2)] */
+    /* [We would like to write: ideal=rhs->exponent>>1, but this */
+    /* generates a compiler warning.  Generated code is the same.] */
+    ideal=(rhs->exponent&~1)/2;		/* target */
+
+    /* handle zeros */
+    if (ISZERO(rhs)) {
+      decNumberCopy(res, rhs);		/* could be 0 or -0 */
+      res->exponent=ideal;		/* use the ideal [safe] */
+      /* use decFinish to clamp any out-of-range exponent, etc. */
+      decFinish(res, set, &residue, &status);
+      break;
+      }
+
+    /* any other -x is an oops */
+    if (decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {
+      status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+      break;
+      }
+
+    /* space is needed for three working variables */
+    /*	 f -- the same precision as the RHS, reduced to 0.01->0.99... */
+    /*	 a -- Hull's approximation -- precision, when assigned, is */
+    /*	      currentprecision+1 or the input argument precision, */
+    /*	      whichever is larger (+2 for use as temporary) */
+    /*	 b -- intermediate temporary result (same size as a) */
+    /* if any is too long for local storage, then allocate */
+    workp=MAXI(set->digits+1, rhs->digits);  /* actual rounding precision */
+    maxp=workp+2;			     /* largest working precision */
+
+    needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(rhs->digits)-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+    if (needbytes>(Int)sizeof(buff)) {
+      allocbuff=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+      if (allocbuff==NULL) {  /* hopeless -- abandon */
+	status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	break;}
+      f=allocbuff;	      /* use the allocated space */
+      }
+    /* a and b both need to be able to hold a maxp-length number */
+    needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(maxp)-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+    if (needbytes>(Int)sizeof(bufa)) {		  /* [same applies to b] */
+      allocbufa=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+      allocbufb=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+      if (allocbufa==NULL || allocbufb==NULL) {	  /* hopeless */
+	status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	break;}
+      a=allocbufa;	      /* use the allocated spaces */
+      b=allocbufb;	      /* .. */
+      }
+
+    /* copy rhs -> f, save exponent, and reduce so 0.1 <= f < 1 */
+    decNumberCopy(f, rhs);
+    exp=f->exponent+f->digits;		     /* adjusted to Hull rules */
+    f->exponent=-(f->digits);		     /* to range */
+
+    /* set up working context */
+    decContextDefault(&workset, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64);
+
+    /* [Until further notice, no error is possible and status bits */
+    /* (Rounded, etc.) should be ignored, not accumulated.] */
+
+    /* Calculate initial approximation, and allow for odd exponent */
+    workset.digits=workp;		     /* p for initial calculation */
+    t->bits=0; t->digits=3;
+    a->bits=0; a->digits=3;
+    if ((exp & 1)==0) {			     /* even exponent */
+      /* Set t=0.259, a=0.819 */
+      t->exponent=-3;
+      a->exponent=-3;
+      #if DECDPUN>=3
+	t->lsu[0]=259;
+	a->lsu[0]=819;
+      #elif DECDPUN==2
+	t->lsu[0]=59; t->lsu[1]=2;
+	a->lsu[0]=19; a->lsu[1]=8;
+      #else
+	t->lsu[0]=9; t->lsu[1]=5; t->lsu[2]=2;
+	a->lsu[0]=9; a->lsu[1]=1; a->lsu[2]=8;
+      #endif
+      }
+     else {				     /* odd exponent */
+      /* Set t=0.0819, a=2.59 */
+      f->exponent--;			     /* f=f/10 */
+      exp++;				     /* e=e+1 */
+      t->exponent=-4;
+      a->exponent=-2;
+      #if DECDPUN>=3
+	t->lsu[0]=819;
+	a->lsu[0]=259;
+      #elif DECDPUN==2
+	t->lsu[0]=19; t->lsu[1]=8;
+	a->lsu[0]=59; a->lsu[1]=2;
+      #else
+	t->lsu[0]=9; t->lsu[1]=1; t->lsu[2]=8;
+	a->lsu[0]=9; a->lsu[1]=5; a->lsu[2]=2;
+      #endif
+      }
+    decMultiplyOp(a, a, f, &workset, &ignore);	  /* a=a*f */
+    decAddOp(a, a, t, &workset, 0, &ignore);	  /* ..+t */
+    /* [a is now the initial approximation for sqrt(f), calculated with */
+    /* currentprecision, which is also a's precision.] */
+
+    /* the main calculation loop */
+    decNumberZero(&dzero);		     /* make 0 */
+    decNumberZero(t);			     /* set t = 0.5 */
+    t->lsu[0]=5;			     /* .. */
+    t->exponent=-1;			     /* .. */
+    workset.digits=3;			     /* initial p */
+    for (;;) {
+      /* set p to min(2*p - 2, maxp)  [hence 3; or: 4, 6, 10, ... , maxp] */
+      workset.digits=workset.digits*2-2;
+      if (workset.digits>maxp) workset.digits=maxp;
+      /* a = 0.5 * (a + f/a) */
+      /* [calculated at p then rounded to currentprecision] */
+      decDivideOp(b, f, a, &workset, DIVIDE, &ignore); /* b=f/a */
+      decAddOp(b, b, a, &workset, 0, &ignore);	  /* b=b+a */
+      decMultiplyOp(a, b, t, &workset, &ignore);  /* a=b*0.5 */
+      if (a->digits==maxp) break;	     /* have required digits */
+      } /* loop */
+
+    /* Here, 0.1 <= a < 1 [Hull], and a has maxp digits */
+    /* now reduce to length, etc.; this needs to be done with a */
+    /* having the correct exponent so as to handle subnormals */
+    /* correctly */
+    approxset=*set;			     /* get emin, emax, etc. */
+    approxset.round=DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN;
+    a->exponent+=exp/2;			     /* set correct exponent */
+
+    rstatus=0;				     /* clear status */
+    residue=0;				     /* .. and accumulator */
+    decCopyFit(a, a, &approxset, &residue, &rstatus);  /* reduce (if needed) */
+    decFinish(a, &approxset, &residue, &rstatus);      /* clean and finalize */
+
+    /* Overflow was possible if the input exponent was out-of-range, */
+    /* in which case quit */
+    if (rstatus&DEC_Overflow) {
+      status=rstatus;			     /* use the status as-is */
+      decNumberCopy(res, a);		     /* copy to result */
+      break;
+      }
+
+    /* Preserve status except Inexact/Rounded */
+    status|=(rstatus & ~(DEC_Rounded|DEC_Inexact));
+
+    /* Carry out the Hull correction */
+    a->exponent-=exp/2;			     /* back to 0.1->1 */
+
+    /* a is now at final precision and within 1 ulp of the properly */
+    /* rounded square root of f; to ensure proper rounding, compare */
+    /* squares of (a - l/2 ulp) and (a + l/2 ulp) with f. */
+    /* Here workset.digits=maxp and t=0.5, and a->digits determines */
+    /* the ulp */
+    workset.digits--;				  /* maxp-1 is OK now */
+    t->exponent=-a->digits-1;			  /* make 0.5 ulp */
+    decAddOp(b, a, t, &workset, DECNEG, &ignore); /* b = a - 0.5 ulp */
+    workset.round=DEC_ROUND_UP;
+    decMultiplyOp(b, b, b, &workset, &ignore);	  /* b = mulru(b, b) */
+    decCompareOp(b, f, b, &workset, COMPARE, &ignore); /* b ? f, reversed */
+    if (decNumberIsNegative(b)) {		  /* f < b [i.e., b > f] */
+      /* this is the more common adjustment, though both are rare */
+      t->exponent++;				  /* make 1.0 ulp */
+      t->lsu[0]=1;				  /* .. */
+      decAddOp(a, a, t, &workset, DECNEG, &ignore); /* a = a - 1 ulp */
+      /* assign to approx [round to length] */
+      approxset.emin-=exp/2;			  /* adjust to match a */
+      approxset.emax-=exp/2;
+      decAddOp(a, &dzero, a, &approxset, 0, &ignore);
+      }
+     else {
+      decAddOp(b, a, t, &workset, 0, &ignore);	  /* b = a + 0.5 ulp */
+      workset.round=DEC_ROUND_DOWN;
+      decMultiplyOp(b, b, b, &workset, &ignore);  /* b = mulrd(b, b) */
+      decCompareOp(b, b, f, &workset, COMPARE, &ignore);   /* b ? f */
+      if (decNumberIsNegative(b)) {		  /* b < f */
+	t->exponent++;				  /* make 1.0 ulp */
+	t->lsu[0]=1;				  /* .. */
+	decAddOp(a, a, t, &workset, 0, &ignore);  /* a = a + 1 ulp */
+	/* assign to approx [round to length] */
+	approxset.emin-=exp/2;			  /* adjust to match a */
+	approxset.emax-=exp/2;
+	decAddOp(a, &dzero, a, &approxset, 0, &ignore);
+	}
+      }
+    /* [no errors are possible in the above, and rounding/inexact during */
+    /* estimation are irrelevant, so status was not accumulated] */
+
+    /* Here, 0.1 <= a < 1  (still), so adjust back */
+    a->exponent+=exp/2;			     /* set correct exponent */
+
+    /* count droppable zeros [after any subnormal rounding] by */
+    /* trimming a copy */
+    decNumberCopy(b, a);
+    decTrim(b, set, 1, &dropped);	     /* [drops trailing zeros] */
+
+    /* Set Inexact and Rounded.	 The answer can only be exact if */
+    /* it is short enough so that squaring it could fit in workp digits, */
+    /* and it cannot have trailing zeros due to clamping, so these are */
+    /* the only (relatively rare) conditions a careful check is needed */
+    if (b->digits*2-1 > workp && !set->clamp) { /* cannot fit */
+      status|=DEC_Inexact|DEC_Rounded;
+      }
+     else {				     /* could be exact/unrounded */
+      uInt mstatus=0;			     /* local status */
+      decMultiplyOp(b, b, b, &workset, &mstatus); /* try the multiply */
+      if (mstatus&DEC_Overflow) {	     /* result just won't fit */
+	status|=DEC_Inexact|DEC_Rounded;
+	}
+       else {				     /* plausible */
+	decCompareOp(t, b, rhs, &workset, COMPARE, &mstatus); /* b ? rhs */
+	if (!ISZERO(t)) status|=DEC_Inexact|DEC_Rounded; /* not equal */
+	 else {				     /* is Exact */
+	  /* here, dropped is the count of trailing zeros in 'a' */
+	  /* use closest exponent to ideal... */
+	  Int todrop=ideal-a->exponent;	     /* most that can be dropped */
+	  if (todrop<0) status|=DEC_Rounded; /* ideally would add 0s */
+	   else {			     /* unrounded */
+	    if (dropped<todrop) {	     /* clamp to those available */
+	      todrop=dropped;
+	      status|=DEC_Clamped;
+	      }
+	    if (todrop>0) {		     /* have some to drop */
+	      decShiftToLeast(a->lsu, D2U(a->digits), todrop);
+	      a->exponent+=todrop;	     /* maintain numerical value */
+	      a->digits-=todrop;	     /* new length */
+	      }
+	    }
+	  }
+	}
+      }
+
+    /* double-check Underflow, as perhaps the result could not have */
+    /* been subnormal (initial argument too big), or it is now Exact */
+    if (status&DEC_Underflow) {
+      Int ae=rhs->exponent+rhs->digits-1;    /* adjusted exponent */
+      /* check if truly subnormal */
+      #if DECEXTFLAG			     /* DEC_Subnormal too */
+	if (ae>=set->emin*2) status&=~(DEC_Subnormal|DEC_Underflow);
+      #else
+	if (ae>=set->emin*2) status&=~DEC_Underflow;
+      #endif
+      /* check if truly inexact */
+      if (!(status&DEC_Inexact)) status&=~DEC_Underflow;
+      }
+
+    decNumberCopy(res, a);		     /* a is now the result */
+    } while(0);				     /* end protected */
+
+  if (allocbuff!=NULL) free(allocbuff);	     /* drop any storage used */
+  if (allocbufa!=NULL) free(allocbufa);	     /* .. */
+  if (allocbufb!=NULL) free(allocbufb);	     /* .. */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (allocrhs !=NULL) free(allocrhs);	     /* .. */
+  #endif
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);/* then report status */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberSquareRoot */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberSubtract -- subtract two Numbers			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A - B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X-X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberSubtract(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			      const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;			/* accumulator */
+
+  decAddOp(res, lhs, rhs, set, DECNEG, &status);
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  #if DECCHECK
+  decCheckInexact(res, set);
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberSubtract */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberToIntegralExact -- round-to-integral-value with InExact   */
+/* decNumberToIntegralValue -- round-to-integral-value		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is the result						      */
+/*   rhs is input number					      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*								      */
+/* res must have space for any value of rhs.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* This implements the IEEE special operators and therefore treats    */
+/* special values as valid.  For finite numbers it returns	      */
+/* rescale(rhs, 0) if rhs->exponent is <0.			      */
+/* Otherwise the result is rhs (so no error is possible, except for   */
+/* sNaN).							      */
+/*								      */
+/* The context is used for rounding mode and status after sNaN, but   */
+/* the digits setting is ignored.  The Exact version will signal      */
+/* Inexact if the result differs numerically from rhs; the other      */
+/* never signals Inexact.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberToIntegralExact(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+				     decContext *set) {
+  decNumber dn;
+  decContext workset;		   /* working context */
+  uInt status=0;		   /* accumulator */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  /* handle infinities and NaNs */
+  if (SPECIALARG) {
+    if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs)) decNumberCopy(res, rhs); /* an Infinity */
+     else decNaNs(res, rhs, NULL, set, &status); /* a NaN */
+    }
+   else { /* finite */
+    /* have a finite number; no error possible (res must be big enough) */
+    if (rhs->exponent>=0) return decNumberCopy(res, rhs);
+    /* that was easy, but if negative exponent there is work to do... */
+    workset=*set;		   /* clone rounding, etc. */
+    workset.digits=rhs->digits;	   /* no length rounding */
+    workset.traps=0;		   /* no traps */
+    decNumberZero(&dn);		   /* make a number with exponent 0 */
+    decNumberQuantize(res, rhs, &dn, &workset);
+    status|=workset.status;
+    }
+  if (status!=0) decStatus(res, status, set);
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberToIntegralExact */
+
+decNumber * decNumberToIntegralValue(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+				     decContext *set) {
+  decContext workset=*set;	   /* working context */
+  workset.traps=0;		   /* no traps */
+  decNumberToIntegralExact(res, rhs, &workset);
+  /* this never affects set, except for sNaNs; NaN will have been set */
+  /* or propagated already, so no need to call decStatus */
+  set->status|=workset.status&DEC_Invalid_operation;
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberToIntegralValue */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberXor -- XOR two Numbers, digitwise			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A ^ B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X^X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context (used for result length and error report)     */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Logical function restrictions apply (see above); a NaN is	      */
+/* returned with Invalid_operation if a restriction is violated.      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberXor(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			 const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  const Unit *ua, *ub;			/* -> operands */
+  const Unit *msua, *msub;		/* -> operand msus */
+  Unit	*uc, *msuc;			/* -> result and its msu */
+  Int	msudigs;			/* digits in res msu */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  if (lhs->exponent!=0 || decNumberIsSpecial(lhs) || decNumberIsNegative(lhs)
+   || rhs->exponent!=0 || decNumberIsSpecial(rhs) || decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {
+    decStatus(res, DEC_Invalid_operation, set);
+    return res;
+    }
+  /* operands are valid */
+  ua=lhs->lsu;				/* bottom-up */
+  ub=rhs->lsu;				/* .. */
+  uc=res->lsu;				/* .. */
+  msua=ua+D2U(lhs->digits)-1;		/* -> msu of lhs */
+  msub=ub+D2U(rhs->digits)-1;		/* -> msu of rhs */
+  msuc=uc+D2U(set->digits)-1;		/* -> msu of result */
+  msudigs=MSUDIGITS(set->digits);	/* [faster than remainder] */
+  for (; uc<=msuc; ua++, ub++, uc++) {	/* Unit loop */
+    Unit a, b;				/* extract units */
+    if (ua>msua) a=0;
+     else a=*ua;
+    if (ub>msub) b=0;
+     else b=*ub;
+    *uc=0;				/* can now write back */
+    if (a|b) {				/* maybe 1 bits to examine */
+      Int i, j;
+      /* This loop could be unrolled and/or use BIN2BCD tables */
+      for (i=0; i<DECDPUN; i++) {
+	if ((a^b)&1) *uc=*uc+(Unit)powers[i];	  /* effect XOR */
+	j=a%10;
+	a=a/10;
+	j|=b%10;
+	b=b/10;
+	if (j>1) {
+	  decStatus(res, DEC_Invalid_operation, set);
+	  return res;
+	  }
+	if (uc==msuc && i==msudigs-1) break;	  /* just did final digit */
+	} /* each digit */
+      } /* non-zero */
+    } /* each unit */
+  /* [here uc-1 is the msu of the result] */
+  res->digits=decGetDigits(res->lsu, uc-res->lsu);
+  res->exponent=0;			/* integer */
+  res->bits=0;				/* sign=0 */
+  return res;  /* [no status to set] */
+  } /* decNumberXor */
+
+
+/* ================================================================== */
+/* Utility routines						      */
+/* ================================================================== */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberClass -- return the decClass of a decNumber		      */
+/*   dn -- the decNumber to test				      */
+/*   set -- the context to use for Emin				      */
+/*   returns the decClass enum					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+enum decClass decNumberClass(const decNumber *dn, decContext *set) {
+  if (decNumberIsSpecial(dn)) {
+    if (decNumberIsQNaN(dn)) return DEC_CLASS_QNAN;
+    if (decNumberIsSNaN(dn)) return DEC_CLASS_SNAN;
+    /* must be an infinity */
+    if (decNumberIsNegative(dn)) return DEC_CLASS_NEG_INF;
+    return DEC_CLASS_POS_INF;
+    }
+  /* is finite */
+  if (decNumberIsNormal(dn, set)) { /* most common */
+    if (decNumberIsNegative(dn)) return DEC_CLASS_NEG_NORMAL;
+    return DEC_CLASS_POS_NORMAL;
+    }
+  /* is subnormal or zero */
+  if (decNumberIsZero(dn)) {	/* most common */
+    if (decNumberIsNegative(dn)) return DEC_CLASS_NEG_ZERO;
+    return DEC_CLASS_POS_ZERO;
+    }
+  if (decNumberIsNegative(dn)) return DEC_CLASS_NEG_SUBNORMAL;
+  return DEC_CLASS_POS_SUBNORMAL;
+  } /* decNumberClass */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberClassToString -- convert decClass to a string	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  eclass is a valid decClass					      */
+/*  returns a constant string describing the class (max 13+1 chars)   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+const char *decNumberClassToString(enum decClass eclass) {
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_POS_NORMAL)    return DEC_ClassString_PN;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_NEG_NORMAL)    return DEC_ClassString_NN;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_POS_ZERO)      return DEC_ClassString_PZ;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_NEG_ZERO)      return DEC_ClassString_NZ;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_POS_SUBNORMAL) return DEC_ClassString_PS;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_NEG_SUBNORMAL) return DEC_ClassString_NS;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_POS_INF)       return DEC_ClassString_PI;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_NEG_INF)       return DEC_ClassString_NI;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_QNAN)	       return DEC_ClassString_QN;
+  if (eclass==DEC_CLASS_SNAN)	       return DEC_ClassString_SN;
+  return DEC_ClassString_UN;	       /* Unknown */
+  } /* decNumberClassToString */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberCopy -- copy a number				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dest is the target decNumber				      */
+/*   src  is the source decNumber				      */
+/*   returns dest						      */
+/*								      */
+/* (dest==src is allowed and is a no-op)			      */
+/* All fields are updated as required.	This is a utility operation,  */
+/* so special values are unchanged and no error is possible.	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberCopy(decNumber *dest, const decNumber *src) {
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (src==NULL) return decNumberZero(dest);
+  #endif
+
+  if (dest==src) return dest;		     /* no copy required */
+
+  /* Use explicit assignments here as structure assignment could copy */
+  /* more than just the lsu (for small DECDPUN).  This would not affect */
+  /* the value of the results, but could disturb test harness spill */
+  /* checking. */
+  dest->bits=src->bits;
+  dest->exponent=src->exponent;
+  dest->digits=src->digits;
+  dest->lsu[0]=src->lsu[0];
+  if (src->digits>DECDPUN) {		     /* more Units to come */
+    const Unit *smsup, *s;		     /* work */
+    Unit  *d;				     /* .. */
+    /* memcpy for the remaining Units would be safe as they cannot */
+    /* overlap.	 However, this explicit loop is faster in short cases. */
+    d=dest->lsu+1;			     /* -> first destination */
+    smsup=src->lsu+D2U(src->digits);	     /* -> source msu+1 */
+    for (s=src->lsu+1; s<smsup; s++, d++) *d=*s;
+    }
+  return dest;
+  } /* decNumberCopy */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberCopyAbs -- quiet absolute value operator		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This sets C = abs(A)					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* No exception or error can occur; this is a quiet bitwise operation.*/
+/* See also decNumberAbs for a checking version of this.	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberCopyAbs(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs) {
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, DECUNCONT)) return res;
+  #endif
+  decNumberCopy(res, rhs);
+  res->bits&=~DECNEG;			/* turn off sign */
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberCopyAbs */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberCopyNegate -- quiet negate value operator		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This sets C = negate(A)					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* No exception or error can occur; this is a quiet bitwise operation.*/
+/* See also decNumberMinus for a checking version of this.	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberCopyNegate(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs) {
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, DECUNCONT)) return res;
+  #endif
+  decNumberCopy(res, rhs);
+  res->bits^=DECNEG;			/* invert the sign */
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberCopyNegate */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberCopySign -- quiet copy and set sign operator	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This sets C = A with the sign of B				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* No exception or error can occur; this is a quiet bitwise operation.*/
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberCopySign(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			      const decNumber *rhs) {
+  uByte sign;				/* rhs sign */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, DECUNCONT)) return res;
+  #endif
+  sign=rhs->bits & DECNEG;		/* save sign bit */
+  decNumberCopy(res, lhs);
+  res->bits&=~DECNEG;			/* clear the sign */
+  res->bits|=sign;			/* set from rhs */
+  return res;
+  } /* decNumberCopySign */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberGetBCD -- get the coefficient in BCD8		      */
+/*   dn is the source decNumber					      */
+/*   bcd is the uInt array that will receive dn->digits BCD bytes,    */
+/*     most-significant at offset 0				      */
+/*   returns bcd						      */
+/*								      */
+/* bcd must have at least dn->digits bytes.  No error is possible; if */
+/* dn is a NaN or Infinite, digits must be 1 and the coefficient 0.   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uByte * decNumberGetBCD(const decNumber *dn, uint8_t *bcd) {
+  uByte *ub=bcd+dn->digits-1;	   /* -> lsd */
+  const Unit *up=dn->lsu;	   /* Unit pointer, -> lsu */
+
+  #if DECDPUN==1		   /* trivial simple copy */
+    for (; ub>=bcd; ub--, up++) *ub=*up;
+  #else				   /* chopping needed */
+    uInt u=*up;			   /* work */
+    uInt cut=DECDPUN;		   /* downcounter through unit */
+    for (; ub>=bcd; ub--) {
+      *ub=(uByte)(u%10);	   /* [*6554 trick inhibits, here] */
+      u=u/10;
+      cut--;
+      if (cut>0) continue;	   /* more in this unit */
+      up++;
+      u=*up;
+      cut=DECDPUN;
+      }
+  #endif
+  return bcd;
+  } /* decNumberGetBCD */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberSetBCD -- set (replace) the coefficient from BCD8	      */
+/*   dn is the target decNumber					      */
+/*   bcd is the uInt array that will source n BCD bytes, most-	      */
+/*     significant at offset 0					      */
+/*   n is the number of digits in the source BCD array (bcd)	      */
+/*   returns dn							      */
+/*								      */
+/* dn must have space for at least n digits.  No error is possible;   */
+/* if dn is a NaN, or Infinite, or is to become a zero, n must be 1   */
+/* and bcd[0] zero.						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberSetBCD(decNumber *dn, const uByte *bcd, uInt n) {
+  Unit *up = dn->lsu + D2U(n) - 1;      /* -> msu [target pointer] */
+  const uByte *ub=bcd;			/* -> source msd */
+
+  #if DECDPUN==1			/* trivial simple copy */
+    for (; ub<bcd+n; ub++, up--) *up=*ub;
+  #else					/* some assembly needed */
+    /* calculate how many digits in msu, and hence first cut */
+    Int cut=MSUDIGITS(n);		/* [faster than remainder] */
+    for (;up>=dn->lsu; up--) {		/* each Unit from msu */
+      *up=0;				/* will take <=DECDPUN digits */
+      for (; cut>0; ub++, cut--) *up=X10(*up)+*ub;
+      cut=DECDPUN;			/* next Unit has all digits */
+      }
+  #endif
+  dn->digits=n;				/* set digit count */
+  return dn;
+  } /* decNumberSetBCD */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberIsNormal -- test normality of a decNumber		      */
+/*   dn is the decNumber to test				      */
+/*   set is the context to use for Emin				      */
+/*   returns 1 if |dn| is finite and >=Nmin, 0 otherwise	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+Int decNumberIsNormal(const decNumber *dn, decContext *set) {
+  Int ae;				/* adjusted exponent */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(DECUNRESU, DECUNUSED, dn, set)) return 0;
+  #endif
+
+  if (decNumberIsSpecial(dn)) return 0; /* not finite */
+  if (decNumberIsZero(dn)) return 0;	/* not non-zero */
+
+  ae=dn->exponent+dn->digits-1;		/* adjusted exponent */
+  if (ae<set->emin) return 0;		/* is subnormal */
+  return 1;
+  } /* decNumberIsNormal */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberIsSubnormal -- test subnormality of a decNumber	      */
+/*   dn is the decNumber to test				      */
+/*   set is the context to use for Emin				      */
+/*   returns 1 if |dn| is finite, non-zero, and <Nmin, 0 otherwise    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+Int decNumberIsSubnormal(const decNumber *dn, decContext *set) {
+  Int ae;				/* adjusted exponent */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(DECUNRESU, DECUNUSED, dn, set)) return 0;
+  #endif
+
+  if (decNumberIsSpecial(dn)) return 0; /* not finite */
+  if (decNumberIsZero(dn)) return 0;	/* not non-zero */
+
+  ae=dn->exponent+dn->digits-1;		/* adjusted exponent */
+  if (ae<set->emin) return 1;		/* is subnormal */
+  return 0;
+  } /* decNumberIsSubnormal */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberTrim -- remove insignificant zeros			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn is the number to trim					      */
+/*   returns dn							      */
+/*								      */
+/* All fields are updated as required.	This is a utility operation,  */
+/* so special values are unchanged and no error is possible.	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decNumberTrim(decNumber *dn) {
+  Int  dropped;			   /* work */
+  decContext set;		   /* .. */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(DECUNRESU, DECUNUSED, dn, DECUNCONT)) return dn;
+  #endif
+  decContextDefault(&set, DEC_INIT_BASE);    /* clamp=0 */
+  return decTrim(dn, &set, 0, &dropped);
+  } /* decNumberTrim */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberVersion -- return the name and version of this module     */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+const char * decNumberVersion(void) {
+  return DECVERSION;
+  } /* decNumberVersion */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberZero -- set a number to 0				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn is the number to set, with space for one digit		      */
+/*   returns dn							      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Memset is not used as it is much slower in some environments. */
+decNumber * decNumberZero(decNumber *dn) {
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(dn, DECUNUSED, DECUNUSED, DECUNCONT)) return dn;
+  #endif
+
+  dn->bits=0;
+  dn->exponent=0;
+  dn->digits=1;
+  dn->lsu[0]=0;
+  return dn;
+  } /* decNumberZero */
+
+/* ================================================================== */
+/* Local routines						      */
+/* ================================================================== */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decToString -- lay out a number into a string		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn	    is the number to lay out				      */
+/*   string is where to lay out the number			      */
+/*   eng    is 1 if Engineering, 0 if Scientific		      */
+/*								      */
+/* string must be at least dn->digits+14 characters long	      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/*								      */
+/* Note that this routine can generate a -0 or 0.000.  These are      */
+/* never generated in subset to-number or arithmetic, but can occur   */
+/* in non-subset arithmetic (e.g., -1*0 or 1.234-1.234).	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* If DECCHECK is enabled the string "?" is returned if a number is */
+/* invalid. */
+static void decToString(const decNumber *dn, char *string, Flag eng) {
+  Int exp=dn->exponent;	      /* local copy */
+  Int e;		      /* E-part value */
+  Int pre;		      /* digits before the '.' */
+  Int cut;		      /* for counting digits in a Unit */
+  char *c=string;	      /* work [output pointer] */
+  const Unit *up=dn->lsu+D2U(dn->digits)-1; /* -> msu [input pointer] */
+  uInt u, pow;		      /* work */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(DECUNRESU, dn, DECUNUSED, DECUNCONT)) {
+    strcpy(string, "?");
+    return;}
+  #endif
+
+  if (decNumberIsNegative(dn)) {   /* Negatives get a minus */
+    *c='-';
+    c++;
+    }
+  if (dn->bits&DECSPECIAL) {	   /* Is a special value */
+    if (decNumberIsInfinite(dn)) {
+      strcpy(c,	  "Inf");
+      strcpy(c+3, "inity");
+      return;}
+    /* a NaN */
+    if (dn->bits&DECSNAN) {	   /* signalling NaN */
+      *c='s';
+      c++;
+      }
+    strcpy(c, "NaN");
+    c+=3;			   /* step past */
+    /* if not a clean non-zero coefficient, that's all there is in a */
+    /* NaN string */
+    if (exp!=0 || (*dn->lsu==0 && dn->digits==1)) return;
+    /* [drop through to add integer] */
+    }
+
+  /* calculate how many digits in msu, and hence first cut */
+  cut=MSUDIGITS(dn->digits);	   /* [faster than remainder] */
+  cut--;			   /* power of ten for digit */
+
+  if (exp==0) {			   /* simple integer [common fastpath] */
+    for (;up>=dn->lsu; up--) {	   /* each Unit from msu */
+      u=*up;			   /* contains DECDPUN digits to lay out */
+      for (; cut>=0; c++, cut--) TODIGIT(u, cut, c, pow);
+      cut=DECDPUN-1;		   /* next Unit has all digits */
+      }
+    *c='\0';			   /* terminate the string */
+    return;}
+
+  /* non-0 exponent -- assume plain form */
+  pre=dn->digits+exp;		   /* digits before '.' */
+  e=0;				   /* no E */
+  if ((exp>0) || (pre<-5)) {	   /* need exponential form */
+    e=exp+dn->digits-1;		   /* calculate E value */
+    pre=1;			   /* assume one digit before '.' */
+    if (eng && (e!=0)) {	   /* engineering: may need to adjust */
+      Int adj;			   /* adjustment */
+      /* The C remainder operator is undefined for negative numbers, so */
+      /* a positive remainder calculation must be used here */
+      if (e<0) {
+	adj=(-e)%3;
+	if (adj!=0) adj=3-adj;
+	}
+       else { /* e>0 */
+	adj=e%3;
+	}
+      e=e-adj;
+      /* if dealing with zero still produce an exponent which is a */
+      /* multiple of three, as expected, but there will only be the */
+      /* one zero before the E, still.	Otherwise note the padding. */
+      if (!ISZERO(dn)) pre+=adj;
+       else {  /* is zero */
+	if (adj!=0) {		   /* 0.00Esnn needed */
+	  e=e+3;
+	  pre=-(2-adj);
+	  }
+	} /* zero */
+      } /* eng */
+    } /* need exponent */
+
+  /* lay out the digits of the coefficient, adding 0s and . as needed */
+  u=*up;
+  if (pre>0) {			   /* xxx.xxx or xx00 (engineering) form */
+    Int n=pre;
+    for (; pre>0; pre--, c++, cut--) {
+      if (cut<0) {		   /* need new Unit */
+	if (up==dn->lsu) break;	   /* out of input digits (pre>digits) */
+	up--;
+	cut=DECDPUN-1;
+	u=*up;
+	}
+      TODIGIT(u, cut, c, pow);
+      }
+    if (n<dn->digits) {		   /* more to come, after '.' */
+      *c='.'; c++;
+      for (;; c++, cut--) {
+	if (cut<0) {		   /* need new Unit */
+	  if (up==dn->lsu) break;  /* out of input digits */
+	  up--;
+	  cut=DECDPUN-1;
+	  u=*up;
+	  }
+	TODIGIT(u, cut, c, pow);
+	}
+      }
+     else for (; pre>0; pre--, c++) *c='0'; /* 0 padding (for engineering) needed */
+    }
+   else {			   /* 0.xxx or 0.000xxx form */
+    *c='0'; c++;
+    *c='.'; c++;
+    for (; pre<0; pre++, c++) *c='0';	/* add any 0's after '.' */
+    for (; ; c++, cut--) {
+      if (cut<0) {		   /* need new Unit */
+	if (up==dn->lsu) break;	   /* out of input digits */
+	up--;
+	cut=DECDPUN-1;
+	u=*up;
+	}
+      TODIGIT(u, cut, c, pow);
+      }
+    }
+
+  /* Finally add the E-part, if needed.	 It will never be 0, has a
+     base maximum and minimum of +999999999 through -999999999, but
+     could range down to -1999999998 for anormal numbers */
+  if (e!=0) {
+    Flag had=0;		      /* 1=had non-zero */
+    *c='E'; c++;
+    *c='+'; c++;	      /* assume positive */
+    u=e;		      /* .. */
+    if (e<0) {
+      *(c-1)='-';	      /* oops, need - */
+      u=-e;		      /* uInt, please */
+      }
+    /* lay out the exponent [_itoa or equivalent is not ANSI C] */
+    for (cut=9; cut>=0; cut--) {
+      TODIGIT(u, cut, c, pow);
+      if (*c=='0' && !had) continue;	/* skip leading zeros */
+      had=1;				/* had non-0 */
+      c++;				/* step for next */
+      } /* cut */
+    }
+  *c='\0';	    /* terminate the string (all paths) */
+  return;
+  } /* decToString */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decAddOp -- add/subtract operation				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A + B					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X+X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*   negate is DECNEG if rhs should be negated, or 0 otherwise	      */
+/*   status accumulates status for the caller			      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/* Inexact in status must be 0 for correct Exact zero sign in result  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* If possible, the coefficient is calculated directly into C.	      */
+/* However, if:							      */
+/*   -- a digits+1 calculation is needed because the numbers are      */
+/*	unaligned and span more than set->digits digits		      */
+/*   -- a carry to digits+1 digits looks possible		      */
+/*   -- C is the same as A or B, and the result would destructively   */
+/*	overlap the A or B coefficient				      */
+/* then the result must be calculated into a temporary buffer.	In    */
+/* this case a local (stack) buffer is used if possible, and only if  */
+/* too long for that does malloc become the final resort.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* Misalignment is handled as follows:				      */
+/*   Apad: (AExp>BExp) Swap operands and proceed as for BExp>AExp.    */
+/*   BPad: Apply the padding by a combination of shifting (whole      */
+/*	   units) and multiplication (part units).		      */
+/*								      */
+/* Addition, especially x=x+1, is speed-critical.		      */
+/* The static buffer is larger than might be expected to allow for    */
+/* calls from higher-level funtions (notable exp).		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decNumber * decAddOp(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			    const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set,
+			    uByte negate, uInt *status) {
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  decNumber *alloclhs=NULL;	   /* non-NULL if rounded lhs allocated */
+  decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* .., rhs */
+  #endif
+  Int	rhsshift;		   /* working shift (in Units) */
+  Int	maxdigits;		   /* longest logical length */
+  Int	mult;			   /* multiplier */
+  Int	residue;		   /* rounding accumulator */
+  uByte bits;			   /* result bits */
+  Flag	diffsign;		   /* non-0 if arguments have different sign */
+  Unit	*acc;			   /* accumulator for result */
+  Unit	accbuff[SD2U(DECBUFFER*2+20)]; /* local buffer [*2+20 reduces many */
+				   /* allocations when called from */
+				   /* other operations, notable exp] */
+  Unit	*allocacc=NULL;		   /* -> allocated acc buffer, iff allocated */
+  Int	reqdigits=set->digits;	   /* local copy; requested DIGITS */
+  Int	padding;		   /* work */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  do {				   /* protect allocated storage */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) {
+      /* reduce operands and set lostDigits status, as needed */
+      if (lhs->digits>reqdigits) {
+	alloclhs=decRoundOperand(lhs, set, status);
+	if (alloclhs==NULL) break;
+	lhs=alloclhs;
+	}
+      if (rhs->digits>reqdigits) {
+	allocrhs=decRoundOperand(rhs, set, status);
+	if (allocrhs==NULL) break;
+	rhs=allocrhs;
+	}
+      }
+    #endif
+    /* [following code does not require input rounding] */
+
+    /* note whether signs differ [used all paths] */
+    diffsign=(Flag)((lhs->bits^rhs->bits^negate)&DECNEG);
+
+    /* handle infinities and NaNs */
+    if (SPECIALARGS) {			/* a special bit set */
+      if (SPECIALARGS & (DECSNAN | DECNAN))  /* a NaN */
+	decNaNs(res, lhs, rhs, set, status);
+       else { /* one or two infinities */
+	if (decNumberIsInfinite(lhs)) { /* LHS is infinity */
+	  /* two infinities with different signs is invalid */
+	  if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs) && diffsign) {
+	    *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	    break;
+	    }
+	  bits=lhs->bits & DECNEG;	/* get sign from LHS */
+	  }
+	 else bits=(rhs->bits^negate) & DECNEG;/* RHS must be Infinity */
+	bits|=DECINF;
+	decNumberZero(res);
+	res->bits=bits;			/* set +/- infinity */
+	} /* an infinity */
+      break;
+      }
+
+    /* Quick exit for add 0s; return the non-0, modified as need be */
+    if (ISZERO(lhs)) {
+      Int adjust;			/* work */
+      Int lexp=lhs->exponent;		/* save in case LHS==RES */
+      bits=lhs->bits;			/* .. */
+      residue=0;			/* clear accumulator */
+      decCopyFit(res, rhs, set, &residue, status); /* copy (as needed) */
+      res->bits^=negate;		/* flip if rhs was negated */
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      if (set->extended) {		/* exponents on zeros count */
+      #endif
+	/* exponent will be the lower of the two */
+	adjust=lexp-res->exponent;	/* adjustment needed [if -ve] */
+	if (ISZERO(res)) {		/* both 0: special IEEE 854 rules */
+	  if (adjust<0) res->exponent=lexp;  /* set exponent */
+	  /* 0-0 gives +0 unless rounding to -infinity, and -0-0 gives -0 */
+	  if (diffsign) {
+	    if (set->round!=DEC_ROUND_FLOOR) res->bits=0;
+	     else res->bits=DECNEG;	/* preserve 0 sign */
+	    }
+	  }
+	 else { /* non-0 res */
+	  if (adjust<0) {     /* 0-padding needed */
+	    if ((res->digits-adjust)>set->digits) {
+	      adjust=res->digits-set->digits;	  /* to fit exactly */
+	      *status|=DEC_Rounded;		  /* [but exact] */
+	      }
+	    res->digits=decShiftToMost(res->lsu, res->digits, -adjust);
+	    res->exponent+=adjust;		  /* set the exponent. */
+	    }
+	  } /* non-0 res */
+      #if DECSUBSET
+	} /* extended */
+      #endif
+      decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);	  /* clean and finalize */
+      break;}
+
+    if (ISZERO(rhs)) {			/* [lhs is non-zero] */
+      Int adjust;			/* work */
+      Int rexp=rhs->exponent;		/* save in case RHS==RES */
+      bits=rhs->bits;			/* be clean */
+      residue=0;			/* clear accumulator */
+      decCopyFit(res, lhs, set, &residue, status); /* copy (as needed) */
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      if (set->extended) {		/* exponents on zeros count */
+      #endif
+	/* exponent will be the lower of the two */
+	/* [0-0 case handled above] */
+	adjust=rexp-res->exponent;	/* adjustment needed [if -ve] */
+	if (adjust<0) {	    /* 0-padding needed */
+	  if ((res->digits-adjust)>set->digits) {
+	    adjust=res->digits-set->digits;	/* to fit exactly */
+	    *status|=DEC_Rounded;		/* [but exact] */
+	    }
+	  res->digits=decShiftToMost(res->lsu, res->digits, -adjust);
+	  res->exponent+=adjust;		/* set the exponent. */
+	  }
+      #if DECSUBSET
+	} /* extended */
+      #endif
+      decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);	  /* clean and finalize */
+      break;}
+
+    /* [NB: both fastpath and mainpath code below assume these cases */
+    /* (notably 0-0) have already been handled] */
+
+    /* calculate the padding needed to align the operands */
+    padding=rhs->exponent-lhs->exponent;
+
+    /* Fastpath cases where the numbers are aligned and normal, the RHS */
+    /* is all in one unit, no operand rounding is needed, and no carry, */
+    /* lengthening, or borrow is needed */
+    if (padding==0
+	&& rhs->digits<=DECDPUN
+	&& rhs->exponent>=set->emin	/* [some normals drop through] */
+	&& rhs->exponent<=set->emax-set->digits+1 /* [could clamp] */
+	&& rhs->digits<=reqdigits
+	&& lhs->digits<=reqdigits) {
+      Int partial=*lhs->lsu;
+      if (!diffsign) {			/* adding */
+	partial+=*rhs->lsu;
+	if ((partial<=DECDPUNMAX)	/* result fits in unit */
+	 && (lhs->digits>=DECDPUN ||	/* .. and no digits-count change */
+	     partial<(Int)powers[lhs->digits])) { /* .. */
+	  if (res!=lhs) decNumberCopy(res, lhs);  /* not in place */
+	  *res->lsu=(Unit)partial;	/* [copy could have overwritten RHS] */
+	  break;
+	  }
+	/* else drop out for careful add */
+	}
+       else {				/* signs differ */
+	partial-=*rhs->lsu;
+	if (partial>0) { /* no borrow needed, and non-0 result */
+	  if (res!=lhs) decNumberCopy(res, lhs);  /* not in place */
+	  *res->lsu=(Unit)partial;
+	  /* this could have reduced digits [but result>0] */
+	  res->digits=decGetDigits(res->lsu, D2U(res->digits));
+	  break;
+	  }
+	/* else drop out for careful subtract */
+	}
+      }
+
+    /* Now align (pad) the lhs or rhs so they can be added or */
+    /* subtracted, as necessary.  If one number is much larger than */
+    /* the other (that is, if in plain form there is a least one */
+    /* digit between the lowest digit of one and the highest of the */
+    /* other) padding with up to DIGITS-1 trailing zeros may be */
+    /* needed; then apply rounding (as exotic rounding modes may be */
+    /* affected by the residue). */
+    rhsshift=0;		      /* rhs shift to left (padding) in Units */
+    bits=lhs->bits;	      /* assume sign is that of LHS */
+    mult=1;		      /* likely multiplier */
+
+    /* [if padding==0 the operands are aligned; no padding is needed] */
+    if (padding!=0) {
+      /* some padding needed; always pad the RHS, as any required */
+      /* padding can then be effected by a simple combination of */
+      /* shifts and a multiply */
+      Flag swapped=0;
+      if (padding<0) {			/* LHS needs the padding */
+	const decNumber *t;
+	padding=-padding;		/* will be +ve */
+	bits=(uByte)(rhs->bits^negate); /* assumed sign is now that of RHS */
+	t=lhs; lhs=rhs; rhs=t;
+	swapped=1;
+	}
+
+      /* If, after pad, rhs would be longer than lhs by digits+1 or */
+      /* more then lhs cannot affect the answer, except as a residue, */
+      /* so only need to pad up to a length of DIGITS+1. */
+      if (rhs->digits+padding > lhs->digits+reqdigits+1) {
+	/* The RHS is sufficient */
+	/* for residue use the relative sign indication... */
+	Int shift=reqdigits-rhs->digits;     /* left shift needed */
+	residue=1;			     /* residue for rounding */
+	if (diffsign) residue=-residue;	     /* signs differ */
+	/* copy, shortening if necessary */
+	decCopyFit(res, rhs, set, &residue, status);
+	/* if it was already shorter, then need to pad with zeros */
+	if (shift>0) {
+	  res->digits=decShiftToMost(res->lsu, res->digits, shift);
+	  res->exponent-=shift;		     /* adjust the exponent. */
+	  }
+	/* flip the result sign if unswapped and rhs was negated */
+	if (!swapped) res->bits^=negate;
+	decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);	  /* done */
+	break;}
+
+      /* LHS digits may affect result */
+      rhsshift=D2U(padding+1)-1;	/* this much by Unit shift .. */
+      mult=powers[padding-(rhsshift*DECDPUN)]; /* .. this by multiplication */
+      } /* padding needed */
+
+    if (diffsign) mult=-mult;		/* signs differ */
+
+    /* determine the longer operand */
+    maxdigits=rhs->digits+padding;	/* virtual length of RHS */
+    if (lhs->digits>maxdigits) maxdigits=lhs->digits;
+
+    /* Decide on the result buffer to use; if possible place directly */
+    /* into result. */
+    acc=res->lsu;			/* assume add direct to result */
+    /* If destructive overlap, or the number is too long, or a carry or */
+    /* borrow to DIGITS+1 might be possible, a buffer must be used. */
+    /* [Might be worth more sophisticated tests when maxdigits==reqdigits] */
+    if ((maxdigits>=reqdigits)		/* is, or could be, too large */
+     || (res==rhs && rhsshift>0)) {	/* destructive overlap */
+      /* buffer needed, choose it; units for maxdigits digits will be */
+      /* needed, +1 Unit for carry or borrow */
+      Int need=D2U(maxdigits)+1;
+      acc=accbuff;			/* assume use local buffer */
+      if (need*sizeof(Unit)>sizeof(accbuff)) {
+	/* printf("malloc add %ld %ld\n", need, sizeof(accbuff)); */
+	allocacc=(Unit *)malloc(need*sizeof(Unit));
+	if (allocacc==NULL) {		/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	  *status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	  break;}
+	acc=allocacc;
+	}
+      }
+
+    res->bits=(uByte)(bits&DECNEG);	/* it's now safe to overwrite.. */
+    res->exponent=lhs->exponent;	/* .. operands (even if aliased) */
+
+    #if DECTRACE
+      decDumpAr('A', lhs->lsu, D2U(lhs->digits));
+      decDumpAr('B', rhs->lsu, D2U(rhs->digits));
+      printf("	:h: %ld %ld\n", rhsshift, mult);
+    #endif
+
+    /* add [A+B*m] or subtract [A+B*(-m)] */
+    res->digits=decUnitAddSub(lhs->lsu, D2U(lhs->digits),
+			      rhs->lsu, D2U(rhs->digits),
+			      rhsshift, acc, mult)
+	       *DECDPUN;	   /* [units -> digits] */
+    if (res->digits<0) {	   /* borrowed... */
+      res->digits=-res->digits;
+      res->bits^=DECNEG;	   /* flip the sign */
+      }
+    #if DECTRACE
+      decDumpAr('+', acc, D2U(res->digits));
+    #endif
+
+    /* If a buffer was used the result must be copied back, possibly */
+    /* shortening.  (If no buffer was used then the result must have */
+    /* fit, so can't need rounding and residue must be 0.) */
+    residue=0;			   /* clear accumulator */
+    if (acc!=res->lsu) {
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      if (set->extended) {	   /* round from first significant digit */
+      #endif
+	/* remove leading zeros that were added due to rounding up to */
+	/* integral Units -- before the test for rounding. */
+	if (res->digits>reqdigits)
+	  res->digits=decGetDigits(acc, D2U(res->digits));
+	decSetCoeff(res, set, acc, res->digits, &residue, status);
+      #if DECSUBSET
+	}
+       else { /* subset arithmetic rounds from original significant digit */
+	/* May have an underestimate.  This only occurs when both */
+	/* numbers fit in DECDPUN digits and are padding with a */
+	/* negative multiple (-10, -100...) and the top digit(s) become */
+	/* 0.  (This only matters when using X3.274 rules where the */
+	/* leading zero could be included in the rounding.) */
+	if (res->digits<maxdigits) {
+	  *(acc+D2U(res->digits))=0; /* ensure leading 0 is there */
+	  res->digits=maxdigits;
+	  }
+	 else {
+	  /* remove leading zeros that added due to rounding up to */
+	  /* integral Units (but only those in excess of the original */
+	  /* maxdigits length, unless extended) before test for rounding. */
+	  if (res->digits>reqdigits) {
+	    res->digits=decGetDigits(acc, D2U(res->digits));
+	    if (res->digits<maxdigits) res->digits=maxdigits;
+	    }
+	  }
+	decSetCoeff(res, set, acc, res->digits, &residue, status);
+	/* Now apply rounding if needed before removing leading zeros. */
+	/* This is safe because subnormals are not a possibility */
+	if (residue!=0) {
+	  decApplyRound(res, set, residue, status);
+	  residue=0;		     /* did what needed to be done */
+	  }
+	} /* subset */
+      #endif
+      } /* used buffer */
+
+    /* strip leading zeros [these were left on in case of subset subtract] */
+    res->digits=decGetDigits(res->lsu, D2U(res->digits));
+
+    /* apply checks and rounding */
+    decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);
+
+    /* "When the sum of two operands with opposite signs is exactly */
+    /* zero, the sign of that sum shall be '+' in all rounding modes */
+    /* except round toward -Infinity, in which mode that sign shall be */
+    /* '-'."  [Subset zeros also never have '-', set by decFinish.] */
+    if (ISZERO(res) && diffsign
+     #if DECSUBSET
+     && set->extended
+     #endif
+     && (*status&DEC_Inexact)==0) {
+      if (set->round==DEC_ROUND_FLOOR) res->bits|=DECNEG;   /* sign - */
+				  else res->bits&=~DECNEG;  /* sign + */
+      }
+    } while(0);				     /* end protected */
+
+  if (allocacc!=NULL) free(allocacc);	     /* drop any storage used */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (allocrhs!=NULL) free(allocrhs);	     /* .. */
+  if (alloclhs!=NULL) free(alloclhs);	     /* .. */
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decAddOp */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decDivideOp -- division operation				      */
+/*								      */
+/*  This routine performs the calculations for all four division      */
+/*  operators (divide, divideInteger, remainder, remainderNear).      */
+/*								      */
+/*  C=A op B							      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X/X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*   op	 is DIVIDE, DIVIDEINT, REMAINDER, or REMNEAR respectively.    */
+/*   status is the usual accumulator				      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/*   The underlying algorithm of this routine is the same as in the   */
+/*   1981 S/370 implementation, that is, non-restoring long division  */
+/*   with bi-unit (rather than bi-digit) estimation for each unit     */
+/*   multiplier.  In this pseudocode overview, complications for the  */
+/*   Remainder operators and division residues for exact rounding are */
+/*   omitted for clarity.					      */
+/*								      */
+/*     Prepare operands and handle special values		      */
+/*     Test for x/0 and then 0/x				      */
+/*     Exp =Exp1 - Exp2						      */
+/*     Exp =Exp +len(var1) -len(var2)				      */
+/*     Sign=Sign1 * Sign2					      */
+/*     Pad accumulator (Var1) to double-length with 0's (pad1)	      */
+/*     Pad Var2 to same length as Var1				      */
+/*     msu2pair/plus=1st 2 or 1 units of var2, +1 to allow for round  */
+/*     have=0							      */
+/*     Do until (have=digits+1 OR residue=0)			      */
+/*	 if exp<0 then if integer divide/residue then leave	      */
+/*	 this_unit=0						      */
+/*	 Do forever						      */
+/*	    compare numbers					      */
+/*	    if <0 then leave inner_loop				      */
+/*	    if =0 then (* quick exit without subtract *) do	      */
+/*	       this_unit=this_unit+1; output this_unit		      */
+/*	       leave outer_loop; end				      */
+/*	    Compare lengths of numbers (mantissae):		      */
+/*	    If same then tops2=msu2pair -- {units 1&2 of var2}	      */
+/*		    else tops2=msu2plus -- {0, unit 1 of var2}	      */
+/*	    tops1=first_unit_of_Var1*10**DECDPUN +second_unit_of_var1 */
+/*	    mult=tops1/tops2  -- Good and safe guess at divisor	      */
+/*	    if mult=0 then mult=1				      */
+/*	    this_unit=this_unit+mult				      */
+/*	    subtract						      */
+/*	    end inner_loop					      */
+/*	  if have\=0 | this_unit\=0 then do			      */
+/*	    output this_unit					      */
+/*	    have=have+1; end					      */
+/*	  var2=var2/10						      */
+/*	  exp=exp-1						      */
+/*	  end outer_loop					      */
+/*     exp=exp+1   -- set the proper exponent			      */
+/*     if have=0 then generate answer=0				      */
+/*     Return (Result is defined by Var1)			      */
+/*								      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Two working buffers are needed during the division; one (digits+   */
+/* 1) to accumulate the result, and the other (up to 2*digits+1) for  */
+/* long subtractions.  These are acc and var1 respectively.	      */
+/* var1 is a copy of the lhs coefficient, var2 is the rhs coefficient.*/
+/* The static buffers may be larger than might be expected to allow   */
+/* for calls from higher-level funtions (notable exp).		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decNumber * decDivideOp(decNumber *res,
+			       const decNumber *lhs, const decNumber *rhs,
+			       decContext *set, Flag op, uInt *status) {
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  decNumber *alloclhs=NULL;	   /* non-NULL if rounded lhs allocated */
+  decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* .., rhs */
+  #endif
+  Unit	accbuff[SD2U(DECBUFFER+DECDPUN+10)]; /* local buffer */
+  Unit	*acc=accbuff;		   /* -> accumulator array for result */
+  Unit	*allocacc=NULL;		   /* -> allocated buffer, iff allocated */
+  Unit	*accnext;		   /* -> where next digit will go */
+  Int	acclength;		   /* length of acc needed [Units] */
+  Int	accunits;		   /* count of units accumulated */
+  Int	accdigits;		   /* count of digits accumulated */
+
+  Unit	varbuff[SD2U(DECBUFFER*2+DECDPUN)*sizeof(Unit)]; /* buffer for var1 */
+  Unit	*var1=varbuff;		   /* -> var1 array for long subtraction */
+  Unit	*varalloc=NULL;		   /* -> allocated buffer, iff used */
+  Unit	*msu1;			   /* -> msu of var1 */
+
+  const Unit *var2;		   /* -> var2 array */
+  const Unit *msu2;		   /* -> msu of var2 */
+  Int	msu2plus;		   /* msu2 plus one [does not vary] */
+  eInt	msu2pair;		   /* msu2 pair plus one [does not vary] */
+
+  Int	var1units, var2units;	   /* actual lengths */
+  Int	var2ulen;		   /* logical length (units) */
+  Int	var1initpad=0;		   /* var1 initial padding (digits) */
+  Int	maxdigits;		   /* longest LHS or required acc length */
+  Int	mult;			   /* multiplier for subtraction */
+  Unit	thisunit;		   /* current unit being accumulated */
+  Int	residue;		   /* for rounding */
+  Int	reqdigits=set->digits;	   /* requested DIGITS */
+  Int	exponent;		   /* working exponent */
+  Int	maxexponent=0;		   /* DIVIDE maximum exponent if unrounded */
+  uByte bits;			   /* working sign */
+  Unit	*target;		   /* work */
+  const Unit *source;		   /* .. */
+  uLong const *pow;                /* .. */
+  Int	shift, cut;		   /* .. */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  Int	dropped;		   /* work */
+  #endif
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  do {				   /* protect allocated storage */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) {
+      /* reduce operands and set lostDigits status, as needed */
+      if (lhs->digits>reqdigits) {
+	alloclhs=decRoundOperand(lhs, set, status);
+	if (alloclhs==NULL) break;
+	lhs=alloclhs;
+	}
+      if (rhs->digits>reqdigits) {
+	allocrhs=decRoundOperand(rhs, set, status);
+	if (allocrhs==NULL) break;
+	rhs=allocrhs;
+	}
+      }
+    #endif
+    /* [following code does not require input rounding] */
+
+    bits=(lhs->bits^rhs->bits)&DECNEG;	/* assumed sign for divisions */
+
+    /* handle infinities and NaNs */
+    if (SPECIALARGS) {			/* a special bit set */
+      if (SPECIALARGS & (DECSNAN | DECNAN)) { /* one or two NaNs */
+	decNaNs(res, lhs, rhs, set, status);
+	break;
+	}
+      /* one or two infinities */
+      if (decNumberIsInfinite(lhs)) {	/* LHS (dividend) is infinite */
+	if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs) || /* two infinities are invalid .. */
+	    op & (REMAINDER | REMNEAR)) { /* as is remainder of infinity */
+	  *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	  break;
+	  }
+	/* [Note that infinity/0 raises no exceptions] */
+	decNumberZero(res);
+	res->bits=bits|DECINF;		/* set +/- infinity */
+	break;
+	}
+       else {				/* RHS (divisor) is infinite */
+	residue=0;
+	if (op&(REMAINDER|REMNEAR)) {
+	  /* result is [finished clone of] lhs */
+	  decCopyFit(res, lhs, set, &residue, status);
+	  }
+	 else {	 /* a division */
+	  decNumberZero(res);
+	  res->bits=bits;		/* set +/- zero */
+	  /* for DIVIDEINT the exponent is always 0.  For DIVIDE, result */
+	  /* is a 0 with infinitely negative exponent, clamped to minimum */
+	  if (op&DIVIDE) {
+	    res->exponent=set->emin-set->digits+1;
+	    *status|=DEC_Clamped;
+	    }
+	  }
+	decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);
+	break;
+	}
+      }
+
+    /* handle 0 rhs (x/0) */
+    if (ISZERO(rhs)) {			/* x/0 is always exceptional */
+      if (ISZERO(lhs)) {
+	decNumberZero(res);		/* [after lhs test] */
+	*status|=DEC_Division_undefined;/* 0/0 will become NaN */
+	}
+       else {
+	decNumberZero(res);
+	if (op&(REMAINDER|REMNEAR)) *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	 else {
+	  *status|=DEC_Division_by_zero; /* x/0 */
+	  res->bits=bits|DECINF;	 /* .. is +/- Infinity */
+	  }
+	}
+      break;}
+
+    /* handle 0 lhs (0/x) */
+    if (ISZERO(lhs)) {			/* 0/x [x!=0] */
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      if (!set->extended) decNumberZero(res);
+       else {
+      #endif
+	if (op&DIVIDE) {
+	  residue=0;
+	  exponent=lhs->exponent-rhs->exponent; /* ideal exponent */
+	  decNumberCopy(res, lhs);	/* [zeros always fit] */
+	  res->bits=bits;		/* sign as computed */
+	  res->exponent=exponent;	/* exponent, too */
+	  decFinalize(res, set, &residue, status);   /* check exponent */
+	  }
+	 else if (op&DIVIDEINT) {
+	  decNumberZero(res);		/* integer 0 */
+	  res->bits=bits;		/* sign as computed */
+	  }
+	 else {				/* a remainder */
+	  exponent=rhs->exponent;	/* [save in case overwrite] */
+	  decNumberCopy(res, lhs);	/* [zeros always fit] */
+	  if (exponent<res->exponent) res->exponent=exponent; /* use lower */
+	  }
+      #if DECSUBSET
+	}
+      #endif
+      break;}
+
+    /* Precalculate exponent.  This starts off adjusted (and hence fits */
+    /* in 31 bits) and becomes the usual unadjusted exponent as the */
+    /* division proceeds.  The order of evaluation is important, here, */
+    /* to avoid wrap. */
+    exponent=(lhs->exponent+lhs->digits)-(rhs->exponent+rhs->digits);
+
+    /* If the working exponent is -ve, then some quick exits are */
+    /* possible because the quotient is known to be <1 */
+    /* [for REMNEAR, it needs to be < -1, as -0.5 could need work] */
+    if (exponent<0 && !(op==DIVIDE)) {
+      if (op&DIVIDEINT) {
+	decNumberZero(res);		     /* integer part is 0 */
+	#if DECSUBSET
+	if (set->extended)
+	#endif
+	  res->bits=bits;		     /* set +/- zero */
+	break;}
+      /* fastpath remainders so long as the lhs has the smaller */
+      /* (or equal) exponent */
+      if (lhs->exponent<=rhs->exponent) {
+	if (op&REMAINDER || exponent<-1) {
+	  /* It is REMAINDER or safe REMNEAR; result is [finished */
+	  /* clone of] lhs  (r = x - 0*y) */
+	  residue=0;
+	  decCopyFit(res, lhs, set, &residue, status);
+	  decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);
+	  break;
+	  }
+	/* [unsafe REMNEAR drops through] */
+	}
+      } /* fastpaths */
+
+    /* Long (slow) division is needed; roll up the sleeves... */
+
+    /* The accumulator will hold the quotient of the division. */
+    /* If it needs to be too long for stack storage, then allocate. */
+    acclength=D2U(reqdigits+DECDPUN);	/* in Units */
+    if (acclength*sizeof(Unit)>sizeof(accbuff)) {
+      /* printf("malloc dvacc %ld units\n", acclength); */
+      allocacc=(Unit *)malloc(acclength*sizeof(Unit));
+      if (allocacc==NULL) {		/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	*status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	break;}
+      acc=allocacc;			/* use the allocated space */
+      }
+
+    /* var1 is the padded LHS ready for subtractions. */
+    /* If it needs to be too long for stack storage, then allocate. */
+    /* The maximum units needed for var1 (long subtraction) is: */
+    /* Enough for */
+    /*	   (rhs->digits+reqdigits-1) -- to allow full slide to right */
+    /* or  (lhs->digits)	     -- to allow for long lhs */
+    /* whichever is larger */
+    /*	 +1		   -- for rounding of slide to right */
+    /*	 +1		   -- for leading 0s */
+    /*	 +1		   -- for pre-adjust if a remainder or DIVIDEINT */
+    /* [Note: unused units do not participate in decUnitAddSub data] */
+    maxdigits=rhs->digits+reqdigits-1;
+    if (lhs->digits>maxdigits) maxdigits=lhs->digits;
+    var1units=D2U(maxdigits)+2;
+    /* allocate a guard unit above msu1 for REMAINDERNEAR */
+    if (!(op&DIVIDE)) var1units++;
+    if ((var1units+1)*sizeof(Unit)>sizeof(varbuff)) {
+      /* printf("malloc dvvar %ld units\n", var1units+1); */
+      varalloc=(Unit *)malloc((var1units+1)*sizeof(Unit));
+      if (varalloc==NULL) {		/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	*status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	break;}
+      var1=varalloc;			/* use the allocated space */
+      }
+
+    /* Extend the lhs and rhs to full long subtraction length.	The lhs */
+    /* is truly extended into the var1 buffer, with 0 padding, so a */
+    /* subtract in place is always possible.  The rhs (var2) has */
+    /* virtual padding (implemented by decUnitAddSub). */
+    /* One guard unit was allocated above msu1 for rem=rem+rem in */
+    /* REMAINDERNEAR. */
+    msu1=var1+var1units-1;		/* msu of var1 */
+    source=lhs->lsu+D2U(lhs->digits)-1; /* msu of input array */
+    for (target=msu1; source>=lhs->lsu; source--, target--) *target=*source;
+    for (; target>=var1; target--) *target=0;
+
+    /* rhs (var2) is left-aligned with var1 at the start */
+    var2ulen=var1units;			/* rhs logical length (units) */
+    var2units=D2U(rhs->digits);		/* rhs actual length (units) */
+    var2=rhs->lsu;			/* -> rhs array */
+    msu2=var2+var2units-1;		/* -> msu of var2 [never changes] */
+    /* now set up the variables which will be used for estimating the */
+    /* multiplication factor.  If these variables are not exact, add */
+    /* 1 to make sure that the multiplier is never overestimated. */
+    msu2plus=*msu2;			/* it's value .. */
+    if (var2units>1) msu2plus++;	/* .. +1 if any more */
+    msu2pair=(eInt)*msu2*(DECDPUNMAX+1);/* top two pair .. */
+    if (var2units>1) {			/* .. [else treat 2nd as 0] */
+      msu2pair+=*(msu2-1);		/* .. */
+      if (var2units>2) msu2pair++;	/* .. +1 if any more */
+      }
+
+    /* The calculation is working in units, which may have leading zeros, */
+    /* but the exponent was calculated on the assumption that they are */
+    /* both left-aligned.  Adjust the exponent to compensate: add the */
+    /* number of leading zeros in var1 msu and subtract those in var2 msu. */
+    /* [This is actually done by counting the digits and negating, as */
+    /* lead1=DECDPUN-digits1, and similarly for lead2.] */
+    for (pow=&powers[1]; *msu1>=*pow; pow++) exponent--;
+    for (pow=&powers[1]; *msu2>=*pow; pow++) exponent++;
+
+    /* Now, if doing an integer divide or remainder, ensure that */
+    /* the result will be Unit-aligned.	 To do this, shift the var1 */
+    /* accumulator towards least if need be.  (It's much easier to */
+    /* do this now than to reassemble the residue afterwards, if */
+    /* doing a remainder.)  Also ensure the exponent is not negative. */
+    if (!(op&DIVIDE)) {
+      Unit *u;				/* work */
+      /* save the initial 'false' padding of var1, in digits */
+      var1initpad=(var1units-D2U(lhs->digits))*DECDPUN;
+      /* Determine the shift to do. */
+      if (exponent<0) cut=-exponent;
+       else cut=DECDPUN-exponent%DECDPUN;
+      decShiftToLeast(var1, var1units, cut);
+      exponent+=cut;			/* maintain numerical value */
+      var1initpad-=cut;			/* .. and reduce padding */
+      /* clean any most-significant units which were just emptied */
+      for (u=msu1; cut>=DECDPUN; cut-=DECDPUN, u--) *u=0;
+      } /* align */
+     else { /* is DIVIDE */
+      maxexponent=lhs->exponent-rhs->exponent;	  /* save */
+      /* optimization: if the first iteration will just produce 0, */
+      /* preadjust to skip it [valid for DIVIDE only] */
+      if (*msu1<*msu2) {
+	var2ulen--;			/* shift down */
+	exponent-=DECDPUN;		/* update the exponent */
+	}
+      }
+
+    /* ---- start the long-division loops ------------------------------ */
+    accunits=0;				/* no units accumulated yet */
+    accdigits=0;			/* .. or digits */
+    accnext=acc+acclength-1;		/* -> msu of acc [NB: allows digits+1] */
+    for (;;) {				/* outer forever loop */
+      thisunit=0;			/* current unit assumed 0 */
+      /* find the next unit */
+      for (;;) {			/* inner forever loop */
+	/* strip leading zero units [from either pre-adjust or from */
+	/* subtract last time around].	Leave at least one unit. */
+	for (; *msu1==0 && msu1>var1; msu1--) var1units--;
+
+	if (var1units<var2ulen) break;	     /* var1 too low for subtract */
+	if (var1units==var2ulen) {	     /* unit-by-unit compare needed */
+	  /* compare the two numbers, from msu */
+	  const Unit *pv1, *pv2;
+	  Unit v2;			     /* units to compare */
+	  pv2=msu2;			     /* -> msu */
+	  for (pv1=msu1; ; pv1--, pv2--) {
+	    /* v1=*pv1 -- always OK */
+	    v2=0;			     /* assume in padding */
+	    if (pv2>=var2) v2=*pv2;	     /* in range */
+	    if (*pv1!=v2) break;	     /* no longer the same */
+	    if (pv1==var1) break;	     /* done; leave pv1 as is */
+	    }
+	  /* here when all inspected or a difference seen */
+	  if (*pv1<v2) break;		     /* var1 too low to subtract */
+	  if (*pv1==v2) {		     /* var1 == var2 */
+	    /* reach here if var1 and var2 are identical; subtraction */
+	    /* would increase digit by one, and the residue will be 0 so */
+	    /* the calculation is done; leave the loop with residue=0. */
+	    thisunit++;			     /* as though subtracted */
+	    *var1=0;			     /* set var1 to 0 */
+	    var1units=1;		     /* .. */
+	    break;  /* from inner */
+	    } /* var1 == var2 */
+	  /* *pv1>v2.  Prepare for real subtraction; the lengths are equal */
+	  /* Estimate the multiplier (there's always a msu1-1)... */
+	  /* Bring in two units of var2 to provide a good estimate. */
+	  mult=(Int)(((eInt)*msu1*(DECDPUNMAX+1)+*(msu1-1))/msu2pair);
+	  } /* lengths the same */
+	 else { /* var1units > var2ulen, so subtraction is safe */
+	  /* The var2 msu is one unit towards the lsu of the var1 msu, */
+	  /* so only one unit for var2 can be used. */
+	  mult=(Int)(((eInt)*msu1*(DECDPUNMAX+1)+*(msu1-1))/msu2plus);
+	  }
+	if (mult==0) mult=1;		     /* must always be at least 1 */
+	/* subtraction needed; var1 is > var2 */
+	thisunit=(Unit)(thisunit+mult);	     /* accumulate */
+	/* subtract var1-var2, into var1; only the overlap needs */
+	/* processing, as this is an in-place calculation */
+	shift=var2ulen-var2units;
+	#if DECTRACE
+	  decDumpAr('1', &var1[shift], var1units-shift);
+	  decDumpAr('2', var2, var2units);
+	  printf("m=%ld\n", -mult);
+	#endif
+	decUnitAddSub(&var1[shift], var1units-shift,
+		      var2, var2units, 0,
+		      &var1[shift], -mult);
+	#if DECTRACE
+	  decDumpAr('#', &var1[shift], var1units-shift);
+	#endif
+	/* var1 now probably has leading zeros; these are removed at the */
+	/* top of the inner loop. */
+	} /* inner loop */
+
+      /* The next unit has been calculated in full; unless it's a */
+      /* leading zero, add to acc */
+      if (accunits!=0 || thisunit!=0) {	     /* is first or non-zero */
+	*accnext=thisunit;		     /* store in accumulator */
+	/* account exactly for the new digits */
+	if (accunits==0) {
+	  accdigits++;			     /* at least one */
+	  for (pow=&powers[1]; thisunit>=*pow; pow++) accdigits++;
+	  }
+	 else accdigits+=DECDPUN;
+	accunits++;			     /* update count */
+	accnext--;			     /* ready for next */
+	if (accdigits>reqdigits) break;	     /* have enough digits */
+	}
+
+      /* if the residue is zero, the operation is done (unless divide */
+      /* or divideInteger and still not enough digits yet) */
+      if (*var1==0 && var1units==1) {	     /* residue is 0 */
+	if (op&(REMAINDER|REMNEAR)) break;
+	if ((op&DIVIDE) && (exponent<=maxexponent)) break;
+	/* [drop through if divideInteger] */
+	}
+      /* also done enough if calculating remainder or integer */
+      /* divide and just did the last ('units') unit */
+      if (exponent==0 && !(op&DIVIDE)) break;
+
+      /* to get here, var1 is less than var2, so divide var2 by the per- */
+      /* Unit power of ten and go for the next digit */
+      var2ulen--;			     /* shift down */
+      exponent-=DECDPUN;		     /* update the exponent */
+      } /* outer loop */
+
+    /* ---- division is complete --------------------------------------- */
+    /* here: acc      has at least reqdigits+1 of good results (or fewer */
+    /*		      if early stop), starting at accnext+1 (its lsu) */
+    /*	     var1     has any residue at the stopping point */
+    /*	     accunits is the number of digits collected in acc */
+    if (accunits==0) {		   /* acc is 0 */
+      accunits=1;		   /* show have a unit .. */
+      accdigits=1;		   /* .. */
+      *accnext=0;		   /* .. whose value is 0 */
+      }
+     else accnext++;		   /* back to last placed */
+    /* accnext now -> lowest unit of result */
+
+    residue=0;			   /* assume no residue */
+    if (op&DIVIDE) {
+      /* record the presence of any residue, for rounding */
+      if (*var1!=0 || var1units>1) residue=1;
+       else { /* no residue */
+	/* Had an exact division; clean up spurious trailing 0s. */
+	/* There will be at most DECDPUN-1, from the final multiply, */
+	/* and then only if the result is non-0 (and even) and the */
+	/* exponent is 'loose'. */
+	#if DECDPUN>1
+	Unit lsu=*accnext;
+	if (!(lsu&0x01) && (lsu!=0)) {
+	  /* count the trailing zeros */
+	  Int drop=0;
+	  for (;; drop++) {    /* [will terminate because lsu!=0] */
+	    if (exponent>=maxexponent) break;	  /* don't chop real 0s */
+	    #if DECDPUN<=4
+	      if ((lsu-QUOT10(lsu, drop+1)
+		  *powers[drop+1])!=0) break;	  /* found non-0 digit */
+	    #else
+	      if (lsu%powers[drop+1]!=0) break;	  /* found non-0 digit */
+	    #endif
+	    exponent++;
+	    }
+	  if (drop>0) {
+	    accunits=decShiftToLeast(accnext, accunits, drop);
+	    accdigits=decGetDigits(accnext, accunits);
+	    accunits=D2U(accdigits);
+	    /* [exponent was adjusted in the loop] */
+	    }
+	  } /* neither odd nor 0 */
+	#endif
+	} /* exact divide */
+      } /* divide */
+     else /* op!=DIVIDE */ {
+      /* check for coefficient overflow */
+      if (accdigits+exponent>reqdigits) {
+	*status|=DEC_Division_impossible;
+	break;
+	}
+      if (op & (REMAINDER|REMNEAR)) {
+	/* [Here, the exponent will be 0, because var1 was adjusted */
+	/* appropriately.] */
+	Int postshift;			     /* work */
+	Flag wasodd=0;			     /* integer was odd */
+	Unit *quotlsu;			     /* for save */
+	Int  quotdigits;		     /* .. */
+
+	bits=lhs->bits;			     /* remainder sign is always as lhs */
+
+	/* Fastpath when residue is truly 0 is worthwhile [and */
+	/* simplifies the code below] */
+	if (*var1==0 && var1units==1) {	     /* residue is 0 */
+	  Int exp=lhs->exponent;	     /* save min(exponents) */
+	  if (rhs->exponent<exp) exp=rhs->exponent;
+	  decNumberZero(res);		     /* 0 coefficient */
+	  #if DECSUBSET
+	  if (set->extended)
+	  #endif
+	  res->exponent=exp;		     /* .. with proper exponent */
+	  res->bits=(uByte)(bits&DECNEG);	   /* [cleaned] */
+	  decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);   /* might clamp */
+	  break;
+	  }
+	/* note if the quotient was odd */
+	if (*accnext & 0x01) wasodd=1;	     /* acc is odd */
+	quotlsu=accnext;		     /* save in case need to reinspect */
+	quotdigits=accdigits;		     /* .. */
+
+	/* treat the residue, in var1, as the value to return, via acc */
+	/* calculate the unused zero digits.  This is the smaller of: */
+	/*   var1 initial padding (saved above) */
+	/*   var2 residual padding, which happens to be given by: */
+	postshift=var1initpad+exponent-lhs->exponent+rhs->exponent;
+	/* [the 'exponent' term accounts for the shifts during divide] */
+	if (var1initpad<postshift) postshift=var1initpad;
+
+	/* shift var1 the requested amount, and adjust its digits */
+	var1units=decShiftToLeast(var1, var1units, postshift);
+	accnext=var1;
+	accdigits=decGetDigits(var1, var1units);
+	accunits=D2U(accdigits);
+
+	exponent=lhs->exponent;		/* exponent is smaller of lhs & rhs */
+	if (rhs->exponent<exponent) exponent=rhs->exponent;
+
+	/* Now correct the result if doing remainderNear; if it */
+	/* (looking just at coefficients) is > rhs/2, or == rhs/2 and */
+	/* the integer was odd then the result should be rem-rhs. */
+	if (op&REMNEAR) {
+	  Int compare, tarunits;	/* work */
+	  Unit *up;			/* .. */
+	  /* calculate remainder*2 into the var1 buffer (which has */
+	  /* 'headroom' of an extra unit and hence enough space) */
+	  /* [a dedicated 'double' loop would be faster, here] */
+	  tarunits=decUnitAddSub(accnext, accunits, accnext, accunits,
+				 0, accnext, 1);
+	  /* decDumpAr('r', accnext, tarunits); */
+
+	  /* Here, accnext (var1) holds tarunits Units with twice the */
+	  /* remainder's coefficient, which must now be compared to the */
+	  /* RHS.  The remainder's exponent may be smaller than the RHS's. */
+	  compare=decUnitCompare(accnext, tarunits, rhs->lsu, D2U(rhs->digits),
+				 rhs->exponent-exponent);
+	  if (compare==BADINT) {	     /* deep trouble */
+	    *status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	    break;}
+
+	  /* now restore the remainder by dividing by two; the lsu */
+	  /* is known to be even. */
+	  for (up=accnext; up<accnext+tarunits; up++) {
+	    Int half;		   /* half to add to lower unit */
+	    half=*up & 0x01;
+	    *up/=2;		   /* [shift] */
+	    if (!half) continue;
+	    *(up-1)+=(DECDPUNMAX+1)/2;
+	    }
+	  /* [accunits still describes the original remainder length] */
+
+	  if (compare>0 || (compare==0 && wasodd)) { /* adjustment needed */
+	    Int exp, expunits, exprem;	     /* work */
+	    /* This is effectively causing round-up of the quotient, */
+	    /* so if it was the rare case where it was full and all */
+	    /* nines, it would overflow and hence division-impossible */
+	    /* should be raised */
+	    Flag allnines=0;		     /* 1 if quotient all nines */
+	    if (quotdigits==reqdigits) {     /* could be borderline */
+	      for (up=quotlsu; ; up++) {
+		if (quotdigits>DECDPUN) {
+		  if (*up!=DECDPUNMAX) break;/* non-nines */
+		  }
+		 else {			     /* this is the last Unit */
+		  if (*up==powers[quotdigits]-1) allnines=1;
+		  break;
+		  }
+		quotdigits-=DECDPUN;	     /* checked those digits */
+		} /* up */
+	      } /* borderline check */
+	    if (allnines) {
+	      *status|=DEC_Division_impossible;
+	      break;}
+
+	    /* rem-rhs is needed; the sign will invert.	 Again, var1 */
+	    /* can safely be used for the working Units array. */
+	    exp=rhs->exponent-exponent;	     /* RHS padding needed */
+	    /* Calculate units and remainder from exponent. */
+	    expunits=exp/DECDPUN;
+	    exprem=exp%DECDPUN;
+	    /* subtract [A+B*(-m)]; the result will always be negative */
+	    accunits=-decUnitAddSub(accnext, accunits,
+				    rhs->lsu, D2U(rhs->digits),
+				    expunits, accnext, -(Int)powers[exprem]);
+	    accdigits=decGetDigits(accnext, accunits); /* count digits exactly */
+	    accunits=D2U(accdigits);	/* and recalculate the units for copy */
+	    /* [exponent is as for original remainder] */
+	    bits^=DECNEG;		/* flip the sign */
+	    }
+	  } /* REMNEAR */
+	} /* REMAINDER or REMNEAR */
+      } /* not DIVIDE */
+
+    /* Set exponent and bits */
+    res->exponent=exponent;
+    res->bits=(uByte)(bits&DECNEG);	     /* [cleaned] */
+
+    /* Now the coefficient. */
+    decSetCoeff(res, set, accnext, accdigits, &residue, status);
+
+    decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);   /* final cleanup */
+
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    /* If a divide then strip trailing zeros if subset [after round] */
+    if (!set->extended && (op==DIVIDE)) decTrim(res, set, 0, &dropped);
+    #endif
+    } while(0);				     /* end protected */
+
+  if (varalloc!=NULL) free(varalloc);	/* drop any storage used */
+  if (allocacc!=NULL) free(allocacc);	/* .. */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (allocrhs!=NULL) free(allocrhs);	/* .. */
+  if (alloclhs!=NULL) free(alloclhs);	/* .. */
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decDivideOp */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decMultiplyOp -- multiplication operation			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  This routine performs the multiplication C=A x B.		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X*X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*   status is the usual accumulator				      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* 'Classic' multiplication is used rather than Karatsuba, as the     */
+/* latter would give only a minor improvement for the short numbers   */
+/* expected to be handled most (and uses much more memory).	      */
+/*								      */
+/* There are two major paths here: the general-purpose ('old code')   */
+/* path which handles all DECDPUN values, and a fastpath version      */
+/* which is used if 64-bit ints are available, DECDPUN<=4, and more   */
+/* than two calls to decUnitAddSub would be made.		      */
+/*								      */
+/* The fastpath version lumps units together into 8-digit or 9-digit  */
+/* chunks, and also uses a lazy carry strategy to minimise expensive  */
+/* 64-bit divisions.  The chunks are then broken apart again into     */
+/* units for continuing processing.  Despite this overhead, the	      */
+/* fastpath can speed up some 16-digit operations by 10x (and much    */
+/* more for higher-precision calculations).			      */
+/*								      */
+/* A buffer always has to be used for the accumulator; in the	      */
+/* fastpath, buffers are also always needed for the chunked copies of */
+/* of the operand coefficients.					      */
+/* Static buffers are larger than needed just for multiply, to allow  */
+/* for calls from other operations (notably exp).		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+#define FASTMUL (DECUSE64 && DECDPUN<5)
+static decNumber * decMultiplyOp(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+				 const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set,
+				 uInt *status) {
+  Int	 accunits;		   /* Units of accumulator in use */
+  Int	 exponent;		   /* work */
+  Int	 residue=0;		   /* rounding residue */
+  uByte	 bits;			   /* result sign */
+  Unit	*acc;			   /* -> accumulator Unit array */
+  Int	 needbytes;		   /* size calculator */
+  void	*allocacc=NULL;		   /* -> allocated accumulator, iff allocated */
+  Unit	accbuff[SD2U(DECBUFFER*4+1)]; /* buffer (+1 for DECBUFFER==0, */
+				   /* *4 for calls from other operations) */
+  const Unit *mer, *mermsup;	   /* work */
+  Int	madlength;		   /* Units in multiplicand */
+  Int	shift;			   /* Units to shift multiplicand by */
+
+  #if FASTMUL
+    /* if DECDPUN is 1 or 3 work in base 10**9, otherwise */
+    /* (DECDPUN is 2 or 4) then work in base 10**8 */
+    #if DECDPUN & 1		   /* odd */
+      #define FASTBASE 1000000000  /* base */
+      #define FASTDIGS		9  /* digits in base */
+      #define FASTLAZY	       18  /* carry resolution point [1->18] */
+    #else
+      #define FASTBASE	100000000
+      #define FASTDIGS		8
+      #define FASTLAZY	     1844  /* carry resolution point [1->1844] */
+    #endif
+    /* three buffers are used, two for chunked copies of the operands */
+    /* (base 10**8 or base 10**9) and one base 2**64 accumulator with */
+    /* lazy carry evaluation */
+    uInt   zlhibuff[(DECBUFFER*2+1)/8+1]; /* buffer (+1 for DECBUFFER==0) */
+    uInt  *zlhi=zlhibuff;		  /* -> lhs array */
+    uInt  *alloclhi=NULL;		  /* -> allocated buffer, iff allocated */
+    uInt   zrhibuff[(DECBUFFER*2+1)/8+1]; /* buffer (+1 for DECBUFFER==0) */
+    uInt  *zrhi=zrhibuff;		  /* -> rhs array */
+    uInt  *allocrhi=NULL;		  /* -> allocated buffer, iff allocated */
+    uLong  zaccbuff[(DECBUFFER*2+1)/4+2]; /* buffer (+1 for DECBUFFER==0) */
+    /* [allocacc is shared for both paths, as only one will run] */
+    uLong *zacc=zaccbuff;	   /* -> accumulator array for exact result */
+    #if DECDPUN==1
+    Int	   zoff;		   /* accumulator offset */
+    #endif
+    uInt  *lip, *rip;		   /* item pointers */
+    uInt  *lmsi, *rmsi;		   /* most significant items */
+    Int	   ilhs, irhs, iacc;	   /* item counts in the arrays */
+    Int	   lazy;		   /* lazy carry counter */
+    uLong  lcarry;		   /* uLong carry */
+    uInt   carry;		   /* carry (NB not uLong) */
+    Int	   count;		   /* work */
+    const  Unit *cup;		   /* .. */
+    Unit  *up;			   /* .. */
+    uLong *lp;			   /* .. */
+    Int	   p;			   /* .. */
+  #endif
+
+  #if DECSUBSET
+    decNumber *alloclhs=NULL;	   /* -> allocated buffer, iff allocated */
+    decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* -> allocated buffer, iff allocated */
+  #endif
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  /* precalculate result sign */
+  bits=(uByte)((lhs->bits^rhs->bits)&DECNEG);
+
+  /* handle infinities and NaNs */
+  if (SPECIALARGS) {		   /* a special bit set */
+    if (SPECIALARGS & (DECSNAN | DECNAN)) { /* one or two NaNs */
+      decNaNs(res, lhs, rhs, set, status);
+      return res;}
+    /* one or two infinities; Infinity * 0 is invalid */
+    if (((lhs->bits & DECINF)==0 && ISZERO(lhs))
+      ||((rhs->bits & DECINF)==0 && ISZERO(rhs))) {
+      *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+      return res;}
+    decNumberZero(res);
+    res->bits=bits|DECINF;	   /* infinity */
+    return res;}
+
+  /* For best speed, as in DMSRCN [the original Rexx numerics */
+  /* module], use the shorter number as the multiplier (rhs) and */
+  /* the longer as the multiplicand (lhs) to minimise the number of */
+  /* adds (partial products) */
+  if (lhs->digits<rhs->digits) {   /* swap... */
+    const decNumber *hold=lhs;
+    lhs=rhs;
+    rhs=hold;
+    }
+
+  do {				   /* protect allocated storage */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) {
+      /* reduce operands and set lostDigits status, as needed */
+      if (lhs->digits>set->digits) {
+	alloclhs=decRoundOperand(lhs, set, status);
+	if (alloclhs==NULL) break;
+	lhs=alloclhs;
+	}
+      if (rhs->digits>set->digits) {
+	allocrhs=decRoundOperand(rhs, set, status);
+	if (allocrhs==NULL) break;
+	rhs=allocrhs;
+	}
+      }
+    #endif
+    /* [following code does not require input rounding] */
+
+    #if FASTMUL			   /* fastpath can be used */
+    /* use the fast path if there are enough digits in the shorter */
+    /* operand to make the setup and takedown worthwhile */
+    #define NEEDTWO (DECDPUN*2)	   /* within two decUnitAddSub calls */
+    if (rhs->digits>NEEDTWO) {	   /* use fastpath... */
+      /* calculate the number of elements in each array */
+      ilhs=(lhs->digits+FASTDIGS-1)/FASTDIGS; /* [ceiling] */
+      irhs=(rhs->digits+FASTDIGS-1)/FASTDIGS; /* .. */
+      iacc=ilhs+irhs;
+
+      /* allocate buffers if required, as usual */
+      needbytes=ilhs*sizeof(uInt);
+      if (needbytes>(Int)sizeof(zlhibuff)) {
+	alloclhi=(uInt *)malloc(needbytes);
+	zlhi=alloclhi;}
+      needbytes=irhs*sizeof(uInt);
+      if (needbytes>(Int)sizeof(zrhibuff)) {
+	allocrhi=(uInt *)malloc(needbytes);
+	zrhi=allocrhi;}
+
+      /* Allocating the accumulator space needs a special case when */
+      /* DECDPUN=1 because when converting the accumulator to Units */
+      /* after the multiplication each 8-byte item becomes 9 1-byte */
+      /* units.	 Therefore iacc extra bytes are needed at the front */
+      /* (rounded up to a multiple of 8 bytes), and the uLong */
+      /* accumulator starts offset the appropriate number of units */
+      /* to the right to avoid overwrite during the unchunking. */
+      needbytes=iacc*sizeof(uLong);
+      #if DECDPUN==1
+      zoff=(iacc+7)/8;	      /* items to offset by */
+      needbytes+=zoff*8;
+      #endif
+      if (needbytes>(Int)sizeof(zaccbuff)) {
+	allocacc=(uLong *)malloc(needbytes);
+	zacc=(uLong *)allocacc;}
+      if (zlhi==NULL||zrhi==NULL||zacc==NULL) {
+	*status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	break;}
+
+      acc=(Unit *)zacc;	      /* -> target Unit array */
+      #if DECDPUN==1
+      zacc+=zoff;	      /* start uLong accumulator to right */
+      #endif
+
+      /* assemble the chunked copies of the left and right sides */
+      for (count=lhs->digits, cup=lhs->lsu, lip=zlhi; count>0; lip++)
+	for (p=0, *lip=0; p<FASTDIGS && count>0;
+	     p+=DECDPUN, cup++, count-=DECDPUN)
+	  *lip+=*cup*powers[p];
+      lmsi=lip-1;     /* save -> msi */
+      for (count=rhs->digits, cup=rhs->lsu, rip=zrhi; count>0; rip++)
+	for (p=0, *rip=0; p<FASTDIGS && count>0;
+	     p+=DECDPUN, cup++, count-=DECDPUN)
+	  *rip+=*cup*powers[p];
+      rmsi=rip-1;     /* save -> msi */
+
+      /* zero the accumulator */
+      for (lp=zacc; lp<zacc+iacc; lp++) *lp=0;
+
+      /* Start the multiplication */
+      /* Resolving carries can dominate the cost of accumulating the */
+      /* partial products, so this is only done when necessary. */
+      /* Each uLong item in the accumulator can hold values up to */
+      /* 2**64-1, and each partial product can be as large as */
+      /* (10**FASTDIGS-1)**2.  When FASTDIGS=9, this can be added to */
+      /* itself 18.4 times in a uLong without overflowing, so during */
+      /* the main calculation resolution is carried out every 18th */
+      /* add -- every 162 digits.  Similarly, when FASTDIGS=8, the */
+      /* partial products can be added to themselves 1844.6 times in */
+      /* a uLong without overflowing, so intermediate carry */
+      /* resolution occurs only every 14752 digits.  Hence for common */
+      /* short numbers usually only the one final carry resolution */
+      /* occurs. */
+      /* (The count is set via FASTLAZY to simplify experiments to */
+      /* measure the value of this approach: a 35% improvement on a */
+      /* [34x34] multiply.) */
+      lazy=FASTLAZY;			     /* carry delay count */
+      for (rip=zrhi; rip<=rmsi; rip++) {     /* over each item in rhs */
+	lp=zacc+(rip-zrhi);		     /* where to add the lhs */
+	for (lip=zlhi; lip<=lmsi; lip++, lp++) { /* over each item in lhs */
+	  *lp+=(uLong)(*lip)*(*rip);	     /* [this should in-line] */
+	  } /* lip loop */
+	lazy--;
+	if (lazy>0 && rip!=rmsi) continue;
+	lazy=FASTLAZY;			     /* reset delay count */
+	/* spin up the accumulator resolving overflows */
+	for (lp=zacc; lp<zacc+iacc; lp++) {
+	  if (*lp<FASTBASE) continue;	     /* it fits */
+	  lcarry=*lp/FASTBASE;		     /* top part [slow divide] */
+	  /* lcarry can exceed 2**32-1, so check again; this check */
+	  /* and occasional extra divide (slow) is well worth it, as */
+	  /* it allows FASTLAZY to be increased to 18 rather than 4 */
+	  /* in the FASTDIGS=9 case */
+	  if (lcarry<FASTBASE) carry=(uInt)lcarry;  /* [usual] */
+	   else { /* two-place carry [fairly rare] */
+	    uInt carry2=(uInt)(lcarry/FASTBASE);    /* top top part */
+	    *(lp+2)+=carry2;			    /* add to item+2 */
+	    *lp-=((uLong)FASTBASE*FASTBASE*carry2); /* [slow] */
+	    carry=(uInt)(lcarry-((uLong)FASTBASE*carry2)); /* [inline] */
+	    }
+	  *(lp+1)+=carry;		     /* add to item above [inline] */
+	  *lp-=((uLong)FASTBASE*carry);	     /* [inline] */
+	  } /* carry resolution */
+	} /* rip loop */
+
+      /* The multiplication is complete; time to convert back into */
+      /* units.	 This can be done in-place in the accumulator and in */
+      /* 32-bit operations, because carries were resolved after the */
+      /* final add.  This needs N-1 divides and multiplies for */
+      /* each item in the accumulator (which will become up to N */
+      /* units, where 2<=N<=9). */
+      for (lp=zacc, up=acc; lp<zacc+iacc; lp++) {
+	uInt item=(uInt)*lp;		     /* decapitate to uInt */
+	for (p=0; p<FASTDIGS-DECDPUN; p+=DECDPUN, up++) {
+	  uInt part=item/(DECDPUNMAX+1);
+	  *up=(Unit)(item-(part*(DECDPUNMAX+1)));
+	  item=part;
+	  } /* p */
+	*up=(Unit)item; up++;		     /* [final needs no division] */
+	} /* lp */
+      accunits=up-acc;			     /* count of units */
+      }
+     else { /* here to use units directly, without chunking ['old code'] */
+    #endif
+
+      /* if accumulator will be too long for local storage, then allocate */
+      acc=accbuff;		   /* -> assume buffer for accumulator */
+      needbytes=(D2U(lhs->digits)+D2U(rhs->digits))*sizeof(Unit);
+      if (needbytes>(Int)sizeof(accbuff)) {
+	allocacc=(Unit *)malloc(needbytes);
+	if (allocacc==NULL) {*status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage; break;}
+	acc=(Unit *)allocacc;		     /* use the allocated space */
+	}
+
+      /* Now the main long multiplication loop */
+      /* Unlike the equivalent in the IBM Java implementation, there */
+      /* is no advantage in calculating from msu to lsu.  So, do it */
+      /* by the book, as it were. */
+      /* Each iteration calculates ACC=ACC+MULTAND*MULT */
+      accunits=1;		   /* accumulator starts at '0' */
+      *acc=0;			   /* .. (lsu=0) */
+      shift=0;			   /* no multiplicand shift at first */
+      madlength=D2U(lhs->digits);  /* this won't change */
+      mermsup=rhs->lsu+D2U(rhs->digits); /* -> msu+1 of multiplier */
+
+      for (mer=rhs->lsu; mer<mermsup; mer++) {
+	/* Here, *mer is the next Unit in the multiplier to use */
+	/* If non-zero [optimization] add it... */
+	if (*mer!=0) accunits=decUnitAddSub(&acc[shift], accunits-shift,
+					    lhs->lsu, madlength, 0,
+					    &acc[shift], *mer)
+					    + shift;
+	 else { /* extend acc with a 0; it will be used shortly */
+	  *(acc+accunits)=0;	   /* [this avoids length of <=0 later] */
+	  accunits++;
+	  }
+	/* multiply multiplicand by 10**DECDPUN for next Unit to left */
+	shift++;		   /* add this for 'logical length' */
+	} /* n */
+    #if FASTMUL
+      } /* unchunked units */
+    #endif
+    /* common end-path */
+    #if DECTRACE
+      decDumpAr('*', acc, accunits);	     /* Show exact result */
+    #endif
+
+    /* acc now contains the exact result of the multiplication, */
+    /* possibly with a leading zero unit; build the decNumber from */
+    /* it, noting if any residue */
+    res->bits=bits;			     /* set sign */
+    res->digits=decGetDigits(acc, accunits); /* count digits exactly */
+
+    /* There can be a 31-bit wrap in calculating the exponent. */
+    /* This can only happen if both input exponents are negative and */
+    /* both their magnitudes are large.	 If there was a wrap, set a */
+    /* safe very negative exponent, from which decFinalize() will */
+    /* raise a hard underflow shortly. */
+    exponent=lhs->exponent+rhs->exponent;    /* calculate exponent */
+    if (lhs->exponent<0 && rhs->exponent<0 && exponent>0)
+      exponent=-2*DECNUMMAXE;		     /* force underflow */
+    res->exponent=exponent;		     /* OK to overwrite now */
+
+
+    /* Set the coefficient.  If any rounding, residue records */
+    decSetCoeff(res, set, acc, res->digits, &residue, status);
+    decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);   /* final cleanup */
+    } while(0);				/* end protected */
+
+  if (allocacc!=NULL) free(allocacc);	/* drop any storage used */
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (allocrhs!=NULL) free(allocrhs);	/* .. */
+  if (alloclhs!=NULL) free(alloclhs);	/* .. */
+  #endif
+  #if FASTMUL
+  if (allocrhi!=NULL) free(allocrhi);	/* .. */
+  if (alloclhi!=NULL) free(alloclhi);	/* .. */
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decMultiplyOp */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decExpOp -- effect exponentiation				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = exp(A)					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context; note that rounding mode has no effect	      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits. status is updated but    */
+/* not set.							      */
+/*								      */
+/* Restrictions:						      */
+/*								      */
+/*   digits, emax, and -emin in the context must be less than	      */
+/*   2*DEC_MAX_MATH (1999998), and the rhs must be within these	      */
+/*   bounds or a zero.	This is an internal routine, so these	      */
+/*   restrictions are contractual and not enforced.		      */
+/*								      */
+/* A finite result is rounded using DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN; it will      */
+/* almost always be correctly rounded, but may be up to 1 ulp in      */
+/* error in rare cases.						      */
+/*								      */
+/* Finite results will always be full precision and Inexact, except   */
+/* when A is a zero or -Infinity (giving 1 or 0 respectively).	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This approach used here is similar to the algorithm described in   */
+/*								      */
+/*   Variable Precision Exponential Function, T. E. Hull and	      */
+/*   A. Abrham, ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software, Vol 12 #2, */
+/*   pp79-91, ACM, June 1986.					      */
+/*								      */
+/* with the main difference being that the iterations in the series   */
+/* evaluation are terminated dynamically (which does not require the  */
+/* extra variable-precision variables which are expensive in this     */
+/* context).							      */
+/*								      */
+/* The error analysis in Hull & Abrham's paper applies except for the */
+/* round-off error accumulation during the series evaluation.  This   */
+/* code does not precalculate the number of iterations and so cannot  */
+/* use Horner's scheme.	 Instead, the accumulation is done at double- */
+/* precision, which ensures that the additions of the terms are exact */
+/* and do not accumulate round-off (and any round-off errors in the   */
+/* terms themselves move 'to the right' faster than they can	      */
+/* accumulate).	 This code also extends the calculation by allowing,  */
+/* in the spirit of other decNumber operators, the input to be more   */
+/* precise than the result (the precision used is based on the more   */
+/* precise of the input or requested result).			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Implementation notes:					      */
+/*								      */
+/* 1. This is separated out as decExpOp so it can be called from      */
+/*    other Mathematical functions (notably Ln) with a wider range    */
+/*    than normal.  In particular, it can handle the slightly wider   */
+/*    (double) range needed by Ln (which has to be able to calculate  */
+/*    exp(-x) where x can be the tiniest number (Ntiny).	      */
+/*								      */
+/* 2. Normalizing x to be <=0.1 (instead of <=1) reduces loop	      */
+/*    iterations by appoximately a third with additional (although    */
+/*    diminishing) returns as the range is reduced to even smaller    */
+/*    fractions.  However, h (the power of 10 used to correct the     */
+/*    result at the end, see below) must be kept <=8 as otherwise     */
+/*    the final result cannot be computed.  Hence the leverage is a   */
+/*    sliding value (8-h), where potentially the range is reduced     */
+/*    more for smaller values.					      */
+/*								      */
+/*    The leverage that can be applied in this way is severely	      */
+/*    limited by the cost of the raise-to-the power at the end,	      */
+/*    which dominates when the number of iterations is small (less    */
+/*    than ten) or when rhs is short.  As an example, the adjustment  */
+/*    x**10,000,000 needs 31 multiplications, all but one full-width. */
+/*								      */
+/* 3. The restrictions (especially precision) could be raised with    */
+/*    care, but the full decNumber range seems very hard within the   */
+/*    32-bit limits.						      */
+/*								      */
+/* 4. The working precisions for the static buffers are twice the     */
+/*    obvious size to allow for calls from decNumberPower.	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decNumber *decExpOp(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+                           decContext *set, uInt *status) {
+  uInt ignore=0;		   /* working status */
+  Int h;			   /* adjusted exponent for 0.xxxx */
+  Int p;			   /* working precision */
+  Int residue;			   /* rounding residue */
+  uInt needbytes;		   /* for space calculations */
+  const decNumber *x=rhs;	   /* (may point to safe copy later) */
+  decContext aset, tset, dset;	   /* working contexts */
+  Int comp;			   /* work */
+
+  /* the argument is often copied to normalize it, so (unusually) it */
+  /* is treated like other buffers, using DECBUFFER, +1 in case */
+  /* DECBUFFER is 0 */
+  decNumber bufr[D2N(DECBUFFER*2+1)];
+  decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* non-NULL if rhs buffer allocated */
+
+  /* the working precision will be no more than set->digits+8+1 */
+  /* so for on-stack buffers DECBUFFER+9 is used, +1 in case DECBUFFER */
+  /* is 0 (and twice that for the accumulator) */
+
+  /* buffer for t, term (working precision plus) */
+  decNumber buft[D2N(DECBUFFER*2+9+1)];
+  decNumber *allocbuft=NULL;	   /* -> allocated buft, iff allocated */
+  decNumber *t=buft;		   /* term */
+  /* buffer for a, accumulator (working precision * 2), at least 9 */
+  decNumber bufa[D2N(DECBUFFER*4+18+1)];
+  decNumber *allocbufa=NULL;	   /* -> allocated bufa, iff allocated */
+  decNumber *a=bufa;		   /* accumulator */
+  /* decNumber for the divisor term; this needs at most 9 digits */
+  /* and so can be fixed size [16 so can use standard context] */
+  decNumber bufd[D2N(16)];
+  decNumber *d=bufd;		   /* divisor */
+  decNumber numone;		   /* constant 1 */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  Int iterations=0;		   /* for later sanity check */
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  do {					/* protect allocated storage */
+    if (SPECIALARG) {			/* handle infinities and NaNs */
+      if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs)) {	/* an infinity */
+	if (decNumberIsNegative(rhs))	/* -Infinity -> +0 */
+	  decNumberZero(res);
+	 else decNumberCopy(res, rhs);	/* +Infinity -> self */
+	}
+       else decNaNs(res, rhs, NULL, set, status); /* a NaN */
+      break;}
+
+    if (ISZERO(rhs)) {			/* zeros -> exact 1 */
+      decNumberZero(res);		/* make clean 1 */
+      *res->lsu=1;			/* .. */
+      break;}				/* [no status to set] */
+
+    /* e**x when 0 < x < 0.66 is < 1+3x/2, hence can fast-path */
+    /* positive and negative tiny cases which will result in inexact */
+    /* 1.  This also allows the later add-accumulate to always be */
+    /* exact (because its length will never be more than twice the */
+    /* working precision). */
+    /* The comparator (tiny) needs just one digit, so use the */
+    /* decNumber d for it (reused as the divisor, etc., below); its */
+    /* exponent is such that if x is positive it will have */
+    /* set->digits-1 zeros between the decimal point and the digit, */
+    /* which is 4, and if x is negative one more zero there as the */
+    /* more precise result will be of the form 0.9999999 rather than */
+    /* 1.0000001.  Hence, tiny will be 0.0000004  if digits=7 and x>0 */
+    /* or 0.00000004 if digits=7 and x<0.  If RHS not larger than */
+    /* this then the result will be 1.000000 */
+    decNumberZero(d);			/* clean */
+    *d->lsu=4;				/* set 4 .. */
+    d->exponent=-set->digits;		/* * 10**(-d) */
+    if (decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) d->exponent--;  /* negative case */
+    comp=decCompare(d, rhs, 1);		/* signless compare */
+    if (comp==BADINT) {
+      *status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+      break;}
+    if (comp>=0) {			/* rhs < d */
+      Int shift=set->digits-1;
+      decNumberZero(res);		/* set 1 */
+      *res->lsu=1;			/* .. */
+      res->digits=decShiftToMost(res->lsu, 1, shift);
+      res->exponent=-shift;		     /* make 1.0000... */
+      *status|=DEC_Inexact | DEC_Rounded;    /* .. inexactly */
+      break;} /* tiny */
+
+    /* set up the context to be used for calculating a, as this is */
+    /* used on both paths below */
+    decContextDefault(&aset, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64);
+    /* accumulator bounds are as requested (could underflow) */
+    aset.emax=set->emax;		/* usual bounds */
+    aset.emin=set->emin;		/* .. */
+    aset.clamp=0;			/* and no concrete format */
+
+    /* calculate the adjusted (Hull & Abrham) exponent (where the */
+    /* decimal point is just to the left of the coefficient msd) */
+    h=rhs->exponent+rhs->digits;
+    /* if h>8 then 10**h cannot be calculated safely; however, when */
+    /* h=8 then exp(|rhs|) will be at least exp(1E+7) which is at */
+    /* least 6.59E+4342944, so (due to the restriction on Emax/Emin) */
+    /* overflow (or underflow to 0) is guaranteed -- so this case can */
+    /* be handled by simply forcing the appropriate excess */
+    if (h>8) {				/* overflow/underflow */
+      /* set up here so Power call below will over or underflow to */
+      /* zero; set accumulator to either 2 or 0.02 */
+      /* [stack buffer for a is always big enough for this] */
+      decNumberZero(a);
+      *a->lsu=2;			/* not 1 but < exp(1) */
+      if (decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) a->exponent=-2; /* make 0.02 */
+      h=8;				/* clamp so 10**h computable */
+      p=9;				/* set a working precision */
+      }
+     else {				/* h<=8 */
+      Int maxlever=(rhs->digits>8?1:0);
+      /* [could/should increase this for precisions >40 or so, too] */
+
+      /* if h is 8, cannot normalize to a lower upper limit because */
+      /* the final result will not be computable (see notes above), */
+      /* but leverage can be applied whenever h is less than 8. */
+      /* Apply as much as possible, up to a MAXLEVER digits, which */
+      /* sets the tradeoff against the cost of the later a**(10**h). */
+      /* As h is increased, the working precision below also */
+      /* increases to compensate for the "constant digits at the */
+      /* front" effect. */
+      Int lever=MINI(8-h, maxlever);	/* leverage attainable */
+      Int use=-rhs->digits-lever;	/* exponent to use for RHS */
+      h+=lever;				/* apply leverage selected */
+      if (h<0) {			/* clamp */
+	use+=h;				/* [may end up subnormal] */
+	h=0;
+	}
+      /* Take a copy of RHS if it needs normalization (true whenever x>=1) */
+      if (rhs->exponent!=use) {
+	decNumber *newrhs=bufr;		/* assume will fit on stack */
+	needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(rhs->digits)-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+	if (needbytes>sizeof(bufr)) {	/* need malloc space */
+	  allocrhs=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+	  if (allocrhs==NULL) {		/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	    *status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	    break;}
+	  newrhs=allocrhs;		/* use the allocated space */
+	  }
+	decNumberCopy(newrhs, rhs);	/* copy to safe space */
+	newrhs->exponent=use;		/* normalize; now <1 */
+	x=newrhs;			/* ready for use */
+	/* decNumberShow(x); */
+	}
+
+      /* Now use the usual power series to evaluate exp(x).  The */
+      /* series starts as 1 + x + x^2/2 ... so prime ready for the */
+      /* third term by setting the term variable t=x, the accumulator */
+      /* a=1, and the divisor d=2. */
+
+      /* First determine the working precision.	 From Hull & Abrham */
+      /* this is set->digits+h+2.  However, if x is 'over-precise' we */
+      /* need to allow for all its digits to potentially participate */
+      /* (consider an x where all the excess digits are 9s) so in */
+      /* this case use x->digits+h+2 */
+      p=MAXI(x->digits, set->digits)+h+2;    /* [h<=8] */
+
+      /* a and t are variable precision, and depend on p, so space */
+      /* must be allocated for them if necessary */
+
+      /* the accumulator needs to be able to hold 2p digits so that */
+      /* the additions on the second and subsequent iterations are */
+      /* sufficiently exact. */
+      needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(p*2)-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+      if (needbytes>sizeof(bufa)) {	/* need malloc space */
+	allocbufa=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+	if (allocbufa==NULL) {		/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	  *status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	  break;}
+	a=allocbufa;			/* use the allocated space */
+	}
+      /* the term needs to be able to hold p digits (which is */
+      /* guaranteed to be larger than x->digits, so the initial copy */
+      /* is safe); it may also be used for the raise-to-power */
+      /* calculation below, which needs an extra two digits */
+      needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(p+2)-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+      if (needbytes>sizeof(buft)) {	/* need malloc space */
+	allocbuft=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+	if (allocbuft==NULL) {		/* hopeless -- abandon */
+	  *status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	  break;}
+	t=allocbuft;			/* use the allocated space */
+	}
+
+      decNumberCopy(t, x);		/* term=x */
+      decNumberZero(a); *a->lsu=1;	/* accumulator=1 */
+      decNumberZero(d); *d->lsu=2;	/* divisor=2 */
+      decNumberZero(&numone); *numone.lsu=1; /* constant 1 for increment */
+
+      /* set up the contexts for calculating a, t, and d */
+      decContextDefault(&tset, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64);
+      dset=tset;
+      /* accumulator bounds are set above, set precision now */
+      aset.digits=p*2;			/* double */
+      /* term bounds avoid any underflow or overflow */
+      tset.digits=p;
+      tset.emin=DEC_MIN_EMIN;		/* [emax is plenty] */
+      /* [dset.digits=16, etc., are sufficient] */
+
+      /* finally ready to roll */
+      for (;;) {
+	#if DECCHECK
+	iterations++;
+	#endif
+	/* only the status from the accumulation is interesting */
+	/* [but it should remain unchanged after first add] */
+	decAddOp(a, a, t, &aset, 0, status);	       /* a=a+t */
+	decMultiplyOp(t, t, x, &tset, &ignore);	       /* t=t*x */
+	decDivideOp(t, t, d, &tset, DIVIDE, &ignore);  /* t=t/d */
+	/* the iteration ends when the term cannot affect the result, */
+	/* if rounded to p digits, which is when its value is smaller */
+	/* than the accumulator by p+1 digits.	There must also be */
+	/* full precision in a. */
+	if (((a->digits+a->exponent)>=(t->digits+t->exponent+p+1))
+	    && (a->digits>=p)) break;
+	decAddOp(d, d, &numone, &dset, 0, &ignore);    /* d=d+1 */
+	} /* iterate */
+
+      #if DECCHECK
+      /* just a sanity check; comment out test to show always */
+      if (iterations>p+3)
+	printf("Exp iterations=%ld, status=%08lx, p=%ld, d=%ld\n",
+	       iterations, *status, p, x->digits);
+      #endif
+      } /* h<=8 */
+
+    /* apply postconditioning: a=a**(10**h) -- this is calculated */
+    /* at a slightly higher precision than Hull & Abrham suggest */
+    if (h>0) {
+      Int seenbit=0;		   /* set once a 1-bit is seen */
+      Int i;			   /* counter */
+      Int n=powers[h];		   /* always positive */
+      aset.digits=p+2;		   /* sufficient precision */
+      /* avoid the overhead and many extra digits of decNumberPower */
+      /* as all that is needed is the short 'multipliers' loop; here */
+      /* accumulate the answer into t */
+      decNumberZero(t); *t->lsu=1; /* acc=1 */
+      for (i=1;;i++){		   /* for each bit [top bit ignored] */
+	/* abandon if have had overflow or terminal underflow */
+	if (*status & (DEC_Overflow|DEC_Underflow)) { /* interesting? */
+	  if (*status&DEC_Overflow || ISZERO(t)) break;}
+	n=n<<1;			   /* move next bit to testable position */
+	if (n<0) {		   /* top bit is set */
+	  seenbit=1;		   /* OK, have a significant bit */
+	  decMultiplyOp(t, t, a, &aset, status); /* acc=acc*x */
+	  }
+	if (i==31) break;	   /* that was the last bit */
+	if (!seenbit) continue;	   /* no need to square 1 */
+	decMultiplyOp(t, t, t, &aset, status); /* acc=acc*acc [square] */
+	} /*i*/ /* 32 bits */
+      /* decNumberShow(t); */
+      a=t;			   /* and carry on using t instead of a */
+      }
+
+    /* Copy and round the result to res */
+    residue=1;				/* indicate dirt to right .. */
+    if (ISZERO(a)) residue=0;		/* .. unless underflowed to 0 */
+    aset.digits=set->digits;		/* [use default rounding] */
+    decCopyFit(res, a, &aset, &residue, status); /* copy & shorten */
+    decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);	 /* cleanup/set flags */
+    } while(0);				/* end protected */
+
+  if (allocrhs !=NULL) free(allocrhs);	/* drop any storage used */
+  if (allocbufa!=NULL) free(allocbufa); /* .. */
+  if (allocbuft!=NULL) free(allocbuft); /* .. */
+  /* [status is handled by caller] */
+  return res;
+  } /* decExpOp */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Initial-estimate natural logarithm table			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   LNnn -- 90-entry 16-bit table for values from .10 through .99.   */
+/*	     The result is a 4-digit encode of the coefficient (c=the */
+/*	     top 14 bits encoding 0-9999) and a 2-digit encode of the */
+/*	     exponent (e=the bottom 2 bits encoding 0-3)	      */
+/*								      */
+/*	     The resulting value is given by:			      */
+/*								      */
+/*	       v = -c * 10**(-e-3)				      */
+/*								      */
+/*	     where e and c are extracted from entry k = LNnn[x-10]    */
+/*	     where x is truncated (NB) into the range 10 through 99,  */
+/*	     and then c = k>>2 and e = k&3.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static const uShort LNnn[90] = {
+  9016,  8652,  8316,  8008,  7724,  7456,  7208,
+  6972,	 6748,	6540,  6340,  6148,  5968,  5792,  5628,  5464,	 5312,
+  5164,	 5020,	4884,  4748,  4620,  4496,  4376,  4256,  4144,	 4032,
+ 39233, 38181, 37157, 36157, 35181, 34229, 33297, 32389, 31501, 30629,
+ 29777, 28945, 28129, 27329, 26545, 25777, 25021, 24281, 23553, 22837,
+ 22137, 21445, 20769, 20101, 19445, 18801, 18165, 17541, 16925, 16321,
+ 15721, 15133, 14553, 13985, 13421, 12865, 12317, 11777, 11241, 10717,
+ 10197,	 9685,	9177,  8677,  8185,  7697,  7213,  6737,  6269,	 5801,
+  5341,	 4889,	4437, 39930, 35534, 31186, 26886, 22630, 18418, 14254,
+ 10130,	 6046, 20055};
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decLnOp -- effect natural logarithm				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = ln(A)					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A				      */
+/*   rhs is A							      */
+/*   set is the context; note that rounding mode has no effect	      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Notable cases:						      */
+/*   A<0 -> Invalid						      */
+/*   A=0 -> -Infinity (Exact)					      */
+/*   A=+Infinity -> +Infinity (Exact)				      */
+/*   A=1 exactly -> 0 (Exact)					      */
+/*								      */
+/* Restrictions (as for Exp):					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   digits, emax, and -emin in the context must be less than	      */
+/*   DEC_MAX_MATH+11 (1000010), and the rhs must be within these      */
+/*   bounds or a zero.	This is an internal routine, so these	      */
+/*   restrictions are contractual and not enforced.		      */
+/*								      */
+/* A finite result is rounded using DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN; it will      */
+/* almost always be correctly rounded, but may be up to 1 ulp in      */
+/* error in rare cases.						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* The result is calculated using Newton's method, with each	      */
+/* iteration calculating a' = a + x * exp(-a) - 1.  See, for example, */
+/* Epperson 1989.						      */
+/*								      */
+/* The iteration ends when the adjustment x*exp(-a)-1 is tiny enough. */
+/* This has to be calculated at the sum of the precision of x and the */
+/* working precision.						      */
+/*								      */
+/* Implementation notes:					      */
+/*								      */
+/* 1. This is separated out as decLnOp so it can be called from	      */
+/*    other Mathematical functions (e.g., Log 10) with a wider range  */
+/*    than normal.  In particular, it can handle the slightly wider   */
+/*    (+9+2) range needed by a power function.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* 2. The speed of this function is about 10x slower than exp, as     */
+/*    it typically needs 4-6 iterations for short numbers, and the    */
+/*    extra precision needed adds a squaring effect, twice.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* 3. Fastpaths are included for ln(10) and ln(2), up to length 40,   */
+/*    as these are common requests.  ln(10) is used by log10(x).      */
+/*								      */
+/* 4. An iteration might be saved by widening the LNnn table, and     */
+/*    would certainly save at least one if it were made ten times     */
+/*    bigger, too (for truncated fractions 0.100 through 0.999).      */
+/*    However, for most practical evaluations, at least four or five  */
+/*    iterations will be neede -- so this would only speed up by      */
+/*    20-25% and that probably does not justify increasing the table  */
+/*    size.							      */
+/*								      */
+/* 5. The static buffers are larger than might be expected to allow   */
+/*    for calls from decNumberPower.				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decNumber *decLnOp(decNumber *res, const decNumber *rhs,
+                          decContext *set, uInt *status) {
+  uInt ignore=0;		   /* working status accumulator */
+  uInt needbytes;		   /* for space calculations */
+  Int residue;			   /* rounding residue */
+  Int r;			   /* rhs=f*10**r [see below] */
+  Int p;			   /* working precision */
+  Int pp;			   /* precision for iteration */
+  Int t;			   /* work */
+
+  /* buffers for a (accumulator, typically precision+2) and b */
+  /* (adjustment calculator, same size) */
+  decNumber bufa[D2N(DECBUFFER+12)];
+  decNumber *allocbufa=NULL;	   /* -> allocated bufa, iff allocated */
+  decNumber *a=bufa;		   /* accumulator/work */
+  decNumber bufb[D2N(DECBUFFER*2+2)];
+  decNumber *allocbufb=NULL;	   /* -> allocated bufa, iff allocated */
+  decNumber *b=bufb;		   /* adjustment/work */
+
+  decNumber  numone;		   /* constant 1 */
+  decNumber  cmp;		   /* work */
+  decContext aset, bset;	   /* working contexts */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  Int iterations=0;		   /* for later sanity check */
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, DECUNUSED, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  do {					/* protect allocated storage */
+    if (SPECIALARG) {			/* handle infinities and NaNs */
+      if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs)) {	/* an infinity */
+	if (decNumberIsNegative(rhs))	/* -Infinity -> error */
+	  *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	 else decNumberCopy(res, rhs);	/* +Infinity -> self */
+	}
+       else decNaNs(res, rhs, NULL, set, status); /* a NaN */
+      break;}
+
+    if (ISZERO(rhs)) {			/* +/- zeros -> -Infinity */
+      decNumberZero(res);		/* make clean */
+      res->bits=DECINF|DECNEG;		/* set - infinity */
+      break;}				/* [no status to set] */
+
+    /* Non-zero negatives are bad... */
+    if (decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {	/* -x -> error */
+      *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+      break;}
+
+    /* Here, rhs is positive, finite, and in range */
+
+    /* lookaside fastpath code for ln(2) and ln(10) at common lengths */
+    if (rhs->exponent==0 && set->digits<=40) {
+      #if DECDPUN==1
+      if (rhs->lsu[0]==0 && rhs->lsu[1]==1 && rhs->digits==2) { /* ln(10) */
+      #else
+      if (rhs->lsu[0]==10 && rhs->digits==2) {			/* ln(10) */
+      #endif
+	aset=*set; aset.round=DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN;
+	#define LN10 "2.302585092994045684017991454684364207601"
+	decNumberFromString(res, LN10, &aset);
+	*status|=(DEC_Inexact | DEC_Rounded); /* is inexact */
+	break;}
+      if (rhs->lsu[0]==2 && rhs->digits==1) { /* ln(2) */
+	aset=*set; aset.round=DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN;
+	#define LN2 "0.6931471805599453094172321214581765680755"
+	decNumberFromString(res, LN2, &aset);
+	*status|=(DEC_Inexact | DEC_Rounded);
+	break;}
+      } /* integer and short */
+
+    /* Determine the working precision.	 This is normally the */
+    /* requested precision + 2, with a minimum of 9.  However, if */
+    /* the rhs is 'over-precise' then allow for all its digits to */
+    /* potentially participate (consider an rhs where all the excess */
+    /* digits are 9s) so in this case use rhs->digits+2. */
+    p=MAXI(rhs->digits, MAXI(set->digits, 7))+2;
+
+    /* Allocate space for the accumulator and the high-precision */
+    /* adjustment calculator, if necessary.  The accumulator must */
+    /* be able to hold p digits, and the adjustment up to */
+    /* rhs->digits+p digits.  They are also made big enough for 16 */
+    /* digits so that they can be used for calculating the initial */
+    /* estimate. */
+    needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(MAXI(p,16))-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+    if (needbytes>sizeof(bufa)) {     /* need malloc space */
+      allocbufa=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+      if (allocbufa==NULL) {	      /* hopeless -- abandon */
+	*status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	break;}
+      a=allocbufa;		      /* use the allocated space */
+      }
+    pp=p+rhs->digits;
+    needbytes=sizeof(decNumber)+(D2U(MAXI(pp,16))-1)*sizeof(Unit);
+    if (needbytes>sizeof(bufb)) {     /* need malloc space */
+      allocbufb=(decNumber *)malloc(needbytes);
+      if (allocbufb==NULL) {	      /* hopeless -- abandon */
+	*status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+	break;}
+      b=allocbufb;		      /* use the allocated space */
+      }
+
+    /* Prepare an initial estimate in acc. Calculate this by */
+    /* considering the coefficient of x to be a normalized fraction, */
+    /* f, with the decimal point at far left and multiplied by */
+    /* 10**r.  Then, rhs=f*10**r and 0.1<=f<1, and */
+    /*	 ln(x) = ln(f) + ln(10)*r */
+    /* Get the initial estimate for ln(f) from a small lookup */
+    /* table (see above) indexed by the first two digits of f, */
+    /* truncated. */
+
+    decContextDefault(&aset, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64); /* 16-digit extended */
+    r=rhs->exponent+rhs->digits;	/* 'normalised' exponent */
+    decNumberFromInt32(a, r);		/* a=r */
+    decNumberFromInt32(b, 2302585);	/* b=ln(10) (2.302585) */
+    b->exponent=-6;			/*  .. */
+    decMultiplyOp(a, a, b, &aset, &ignore);  /* a=a*b */
+    /* now get top two digits of rhs into b by simple truncate and */
+    /* force to integer */
+    residue=0;				/* (no residue) */
+    aset.digits=2; aset.round=DEC_ROUND_DOWN;
+    decCopyFit(b, rhs, &aset, &residue, &ignore); /* copy & shorten */
+    b->exponent=0;			/* make integer */
+    t=decGetInt(b);			/* [cannot fail] */
+    if (t<10) t=X10(t);			/* adjust single-digit b */
+    t=LNnn[t-10];			/* look up ln(b) */
+    decNumberFromInt32(b, t>>2);	/* b=ln(b) coefficient */
+    b->exponent=-(t&3)-3;		/* set exponent */
+    b->bits=DECNEG;			/* ln(0.10)->ln(0.99) always -ve */
+    aset.digits=16; aset.round=DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN; /* restore */
+    decAddOp(a, a, b, &aset, 0, &ignore); /* acc=a+b */
+    /* the initial estimate is now in a, with up to 4 digits correct. */
+    /* When rhs is at or near Nmax the estimate will be low, so we */
+    /* will approach it from below, avoiding overflow when calling exp. */
+
+    decNumberZero(&numone); *numone.lsu=1;   /* constant 1 for adjustment */
+
+    /* accumulator bounds are as requested (could underflow, but */
+    /* cannot overflow) */
+    aset.emax=set->emax;
+    aset.emin=set->emin;
+    aset.clamp=0;			/* no concrete format */
+    /* set up a context to be used for the multiply and subtract */
+    bset=aset;
+    bset.emax=DEC_MAX_MATH*2;		/* use double bounds for the */
+    bset.emin=-DEC_MAX_MATH*2;		/* adjustment calculation */
+					/* [see decExpOp call below] */
+    /* for each iteration double the number of digits to calculate, */
+    /* up to a maximum of p */
+    pp=9;				/* initial precision */
+    /* [initially 9 as then the sequence starts 7+2, 16+2, and */
+    /* 34+2, which is ideal for standard-sized numbers] */
+    aset.digits=pp;			/* working context */
+    bset.digits=pp+rhs->digits;		/* wider context */
+    for (;;) {				/* iterate */
+      #if DECCHECK
+      iterations++;
+      if (iterations>24) break;		/* consider 9 * 2**24 */
+      #endif
+      /* calculate the adjustment (exp(-a)*x-1) into b.	 This is a */
+      /* catastrophic subtraction but it really is the difference */
+      /* from 1 that is of interest. */
+      /* Use the internal entry point to Exp as it allows the double */
+      /* range for calculating exp(-a) when a is the tiniest subnormal. */
+      a->bits^=DECNEG;			/* make -a */
+      decExpOp(b, a, &bset, &ignore);	/* b=exp(-a) */
+      a->bits^=DECNEG;			/* restore sign of a */
+      /* now multiply by rhs and subtract 1, at the wider precision */
+      decMultiplyOp(b, b, rhs, &bset, &ignore);	       /* b=b*rhs */
+      decAddOp(b, b, &numone, &bset, DECNEG, &ignore); /* b=b-1 */
+
+      /* the iteration ends when the adjustment cannot affect the */
+      /* result by >=0.5 ulp (at the requested digits), which */
+      /* is when its value is smaller than the accumulator by */
+      /* set->digits+1 digits (or it is zero) -- this is a looser */
+      /* requirement than for Exp because all that happens to the */
+      /* accumulator after this is the final rounding (but note that */
+      /* there must also be full precision in a, or a=0). */
+
+      if (decNumberIsZero(b) ||
+	  (a->digits+a->exponent)>=(b->digits+b->exponent+set->digits+1)) {
+	if (a->digits==p) break;
+	if (decNumberIsZero(a)) {
+	  decCompareOp(&cmp, rhs, &numone, &aset, COMPARE, &ignore); /* rhs=1 ? */
+	  if (cmp.lsu[0]==0) a->exponent=0;	       /* yes, exact 0 */
+	   else *status|=(DEC_Inexact | DEC_Rounded);  /* no, inexact */
+	  break;
+	  }
+	/* force padding if adjustment has gone to 0 before full length */
+	if (decNumberIsZero(b)) b->exponent=a->exponent-p;
+	}
+
+      /* not done yet ... */
+      decAddOp(a, a, b, &aset, 0, &ignore);  /* a=a+b for next estimate */
+      if (pp==p) continue;		     /* precision is at maximum */
+      /* lengthen the next calculation */
+      pp=pp*2;				     /* double precision */
+      if (pp>p) pp=p;			     /* clamp to maximum */
+      aset.digits=pp;			     /* working context */
+      bset.digits=pp+rhs->digits;	     /* wider context */
+      } /* Newton's iteration */
+
+    #if DECCHECK
+    /* just a sanity check; remove the test to show always */
+    if (iterations>24)
+      printf("Ln iterations=%ld, status=%08lx, p=%ld, d=%ld\n",
+	    iterations, *status, p, rhs->digits);
+    #endif
+
+    /* Copy and round the result to res */
+    residue=1;				/* indicate dirt to right */
+    if (ISZERO(a)) residue=0;		/* .. unless underflowed to 0 */
+    aset.digits=set->digits;		/* [use default rounding] */
+    decCopyFit(res, a, &aset, &residue, status); /* copy & shorten */
+    decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);	 /* cleanup/set flags */
+    } while(0);				/* end protected */
+
+  if (allocbufa!=NULL) free(allocbufa); /* drop any storage used */
+  if (allocbufb!=NULL) free(allocbufb); /* .. */
+  /* [status is handled by caller] */
+  return res;
+  } /* decLnOp */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decQuantizeOp  -- force exponent to requested value		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = op(A, B), where op adjusts the coefficient     */
+/*   of C (by rounding or shifting) such that the exponent (-scale)   */
+/*   of C has the value B or matches the exponent of B.		      */
+/*   The numerical value of C will equal A, except for the effects of */
+/*   any rounding that occurred.				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A or B			      */
+/*   lhs is A, the number to adjust				      */
+/*   rhs is B, the requested exponent				      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*   quant is 1 for quantize or 0 for rescale			      */
+/*   status is the status accumulator (this can be called without     */
+/*	    risk of control loss)				      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for set->digits digits.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Unless there is an error or the result is infinite, the exponent   */
+/* after the operation is guaranteed to be that requested.	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decNumber * decQuantizeOp(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+				 const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set,
+				 Flag quant, uInt *status) {
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  decNumber *alloclhs=NULL;	   /* non-NULL if rounded lhs allocated */
+  decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* .., rhs */
+  #endif
+  const decNumber *inrhs=rhs;	   /* save original rhs */
+  Int	reqdigits=set->digits;	   /* requested DIGITS */
+  Int	reqexp;			   /* requested exponent [-scale] */
+  Int	residue=0;		   /* rounding residue */
+  Int	etiny=set->emin-(reqdigits-1);
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  do {				   /* protect allocated storage */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) {
+      /* reduce operands and set lostDigits status, as needed */
+      if (lhs->digits>reqdigits) {
+	alloclhs=decRoundOperand(lhs, set, status);
+	if (alloclhs==NULL) break;
+	lhs=alloclhs;
+	}
+      if (rhs->digits>reqdigits) { /* [this only checks lostDigits] */
+	allocrhs=decRoundOperand(rhs, set, status);
+	if (allocrhs==NULL) break;
+	rhs=allocrhs;
+	}
+      }
+    #endif
+    /* [following code does not require input rounding] */
+
+    /* Handle special values */
+    if (SPECIALARGS) {
+      /* NaNs get usual processing */
+      if (SPECIALARGS & (DECSNAN | DECNAN))
+	decNaNs(res, lhs, rhs, set, status);
+      /* one infinity but not both is bad */
+      else if ((lhs->bits ^ rhs->bits) & DECINF)
+	*status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+      /* both infinity: return lhs */
+      else decNumberCopy(res, lhs);	     /* [nop if in place] */
+      break;
+      }
+
+    /* set requested exponent */
+    if (quant) reqexp=inrhs->exponent;	/* quantize -- match exponents */
+     else {				/* rescale -- use value of rhs */
+      /* Original rhs must be an integer that fits and is in range, */
+      /* which could be from -1999999997 to +999999999, thanks to */
+      /* subnormals */
+      reqexp=decGetInt(inrhs);		     /* [cannot fail] */
+      }
+
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) etiny=set->emin;     /* no subnormals */
+    #endif
+
+    if (reqexp==BADINT			     /* bad (rescale only) or .. */
+     || reqexp==BIGODD || reqexp==BIGEVEN    /* very big (ditto) or .. */
+     || (reqexp<etiny)			     /* < lowest */
+     || (reqexp>set->emax)) {		     /* > emax */
+      *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+      break;}
+
+    /* the RHS has been processed, so it can be overwritten now if necessary */
+    if (ISZERO(lhs)) {			     /* zero coefficient unchanged */
+      decNumberCopy(res, lhs);		     /* [nop if in place] */
+      res->exponent=reqexp;		     /* .. just set exponent */
+      #if DECSUBSET
+      if (!set->extended) res->bits=0;	     /* subset specification; no -0 */
+      #endif
+      }
+     else {				     /* non-zero lhs */
+      Int adjust=reqexp-lhs->exponent;	     /* digit adjustment needed */
+      /* if adjusted coefficient will definitely not fit, give up now */
+      if ((lhs->digits-adjust)>reqdigits) {
+	*status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	break;
+	}
+
+      if (adjust>0) {			     /* increasing exponent */
+	/* this will decrease the length of the coefficient by adjust */
+	/* digits, and must round as it does so */
+	decContext workset;		     /* work */
+	workset=*set;			     /* clone rounding, etc. */
+	workset.digits=lhs->digits-adjust;   /* set requested length */
+	/* [note that the latter can be <1, here] */
+	decCopyFit(res, lhs, &workset, &residue, status); /* fit to result */
+	decApplyRound(res, &workset, residue, status);	  /* .. and round */
+	residue=0;					  /* [used] */
+	/* If just rounded a 999s case, exponent will be off by one; */
+	/* adjust back (after checking space), if so. */
+	if (res->exponent>reqexp) {
+	  /* re-check needed, e.g., for quantize(0.9999, 0.001) under */
+	  /* set->digits==3 */
+	  if (res->digits==reqdigits) {	     /* cannot shift by 1 */
+	    *status&=~(DEC_Inexact | DEC_Rounded); /* [clean these] */
+	    *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	    break;
+	    }
+	  res->digits=decShiftToMost(res->lsu, res->digits, 1); /* shift */
+	  res->exponent--;		     /* (re)adjust the exponent. */
+	  }
+	#if DECSUBSET
+	if (ISZERO(res) && !set->extended) res->bits=0; /* subset; no -0 */
+	#endif
+	} /* increase */
+       else /* adjust<=0 */ {		     /* decreasing or = exponent */
+	/* this will increase the length of the coefficient by -adjust */
+	/* digits, by adding zero or more trailing zeros; this is */
+	/* already checked for fit, above */
+	decNumberCopy(res, lhs);	     /* [it will fit] */
+	/* if padding needed (adjust<0), add it now... */
+	if (adjust<0) {
+	  res->digits=decShiftToMost(res->lsu, res->digits, -adjust);
+	  res->exponent+=adjust;	     /* adjust the exponent */
+	  }
+	} /* decrease */
+      } /* non-zero */
+
+    /* Check for overflow [do not use Finalize in this case, as an */
+    /* overflow here is a "don't fit" situation] */
+    if (res->exponent>set->emax-res->digits+1) {  /* too big */
+      *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+      break;
+      }
+     else {
+      decFinalize(res, set, &residue, status);	  /* set subnormal flags */
+      *status&=~DEC_Underflow;		/* suppress Underflow [754r] */
+      }
+    } while(0);				/* end protected */
+
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (allocrhs!=NULL) free(allocrhs);	/* drop any storage used */
+  if (alloclhs!=NULL) free(alloclhs);	/* .. */
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decQuantizeOp */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decCompareOp -- compare, min, or max two Numbers		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This computes C = A ? B and carries out one of four operations:  */
+/*     COMPARE	  -- returns the signum (as a number) giving the      */
+/*		     result of a comparison unless one or both	      */
+/*		     operands is a NaN (in which case a NaN results)  */
+/*     COMPSIG	  -- as COMPARE except that a quiet NaN raises	      */
+/*		     Invalid operation.				      */
+/*     COMPMAX	  -- returns the larger of the operands, using the    */
+/*		     754r maxnum operation			      */
+/*     COMPMAXMAG -- ditto, comparing absolute values		      */
+/*     COMPMIN	  -- the 754r minnum operation			      */
+/*     COMPMINMAG -- ditto, comparing absolute values		      */
+/*     COMTOTAL	  -- returns the signum (as a number) giving the      */
+/*		     result of a comparison using 754r total ordering */
+/*								      */
+/*   res is C, the result.  C may be A and/or B (e.g., X=X?X)	      */
+/*   lhs is A							      */
+/*   rhs is B							      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*   op	 is the operation flag					      */
+/*   status is the usual accumulator				      */
+/*								      */
+/* C must have space for one digit for COMPARE or set->digits for     */
+/* COMPMAX, COMPMIN, COMPMAXMAG, or COMPMINMAG.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* The emphasis here is on speed for common cases, and avoiding	      */
+/* coefficient comparison if possible.				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decNumber *decCompareOp(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+                               const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set,
+                               Flag op, uInt *status) {
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  decNumber *alloclhs=NULL;	   /* non-NULL if rounded lhs allocated */
+  decNumber *allocrhs=NULL;	   /* .., rhs */
+  #endif
+  Int	result=0;		   /* default result value */
+  uByte merged;			   /* work */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(res, lhs, rhs, set)) return res;
+  #endif
+
+  do {				   /* protect allocated storage */
+    #if DECSUBSET
+    if (!set->extended) {
+      /* reduce operands and set lostDigits status, as needed */
+      if (lhs->digits>set->digits) {
+	alloclhs=decRoundOperand(lhs, set, status);
+	if (alloclhs==NULL) {result=BADINT; break;}
+	lhs=alloclhs;
+	}
+      if (rhs->digits>set->digits) {
+	allocrhs=decRoundOperand(rhs, set, status);
+	if (allocrhs==NULL) {result=BADINT; break;}
+	rhs=allocrhs;
+	}
+      }
+    #endif
+    /* [following code does not require input rounding] */
+
+    /* If total ordering then handle differing signs 'up front' */
+    if (op==COMPTOTAL) {		/* total ordering */
+      if (decNumberIsNegative(lhs) && !decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {
+	result=-1;
+	break;
+	}
+      if (!decNumberIsNegative(lhs) && decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) {
+	result=+1;
+	break;
+	}
+      }
+
+    /* handle NaNs specially; let infinities drop through */
+    /* This assumes sNaN (even just one) leads to NaN. */
+    merged=(lhs->bits | rhs->bits) & (DECSNAN | DECNAN);
+    if (merged) {			/* a NaN bit set */
+      if (op==COMPARE);			/* result will be NaN */
+       else if (op==COMPSIG)		/* treat qNaN as sNaN */
+	*status|=DEC_Invalid_operation | DEC_sNaN;
+       else if (op==COMPTOTAL) {	/* total ordering, always finite */
+	/* signs are known to be the same; compute the ordering here */
+	/* as if the signs are both positive, then invert for negatives */
+	if (!decNumberIsNaN(lhs)) result=-1;
+	 else if (!decNumberIsNaN(rhs)) result=+1;
+	 /* here if both NaNs */
+	 else if (decNumberIsSNaN(lhs) && decNumberIsQNaN(rhs)) result=-1;
+	 else if (decNumberIsQNaN(lhs) && decNumberIsSNaN(rhs)) result=+1;
+	 else { /* both NaN or both sNaN */
+	  /* now it just depends on the payload */
+	  result=decUnitCompare(lhs->lsu, D2U(lhs->digits),
+				rhs->lsu, D2U(rhs->digits), 0);
+	  /* [Error not possible, as these are 'aligned'] */
+	  } /* both same NaNs */
+	if (decNumberIsNegative(lhs)) result=-result;
+	break;
+	} /* total order */
+
+       else if (merged & DECSNAN);	     /* sNaN -> qNaN */
+       else { /* here if MIN or MAX and one or two quiet NaNs */
+	/* min or max -- 754r rules ignore single NaN */
+	if (!decNumberIsNaN(lhs) || !decNumberIsNaN(rhs)) {
+	  /* just one NaN; force choice to be the non-NaN operand */
+	  op=COMPMAX;
+	  if (lhs->bits & DECNAN) result=-1; /* pick rhs */
+			     else result=+1; /* pick lhs */
+	  break;
+	  }
+	} /* max or min */
+      op=COMPNAN;			     /* use special path */
+      decNaNs(res, lhs, rhs, set, status);   /* propagate NaN */
+      break;
+      }
+    /* have numbers */
+    if (op==COMPMAXMAG || op==COMPMINMAG) result=decCompare(lhs, rhs, 1);
+     else result=decCompare(lhs, rhs, 0);    /* sign matters */
+    } while(0);				     /* end protected */
+
+  if (result==BADINT) *status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage; /* rare */
+   else {
+    if (op==COMPARE || op==COMPSIG ||op==COMPTOTAL) { /* returning signum */
+      if (op==COMPTOTAL && result==0) {
+	/* operands are numerically equal or same NaN (and same sign, */
+	/* tested first); if identical, leave result 0 */
+	if (lhs->exponent!=rhs->exponent) {
+	  if (lhs->exponent<rhs->exponent) result=-1;
+	   else result=+1;
+	  if (decNumberIsNegative(lhs)) result=-result;
+	  } /* lexp!=rexp */
+	} /* total-order by exponent */
+      decNumberZero(res);		/* [always a valid result] */
+      if (result!=0) {			/* must be -1 or +1 */
+	*res->lsu=1;
+	if (result<0) res->bits=DECNEG;
+	}
+      }
+     else if (op==COMPNAN);		/* special, drop through */
+     else {				/* MAX or MIN, non-NaN result */
+      Int residue=0;			/* rounding accumulator */
+      /* choose the operand for the result */
+      const decNumber *choice;
+      if (result==0) { /* operands are numerically equal */
+	/* choose according to sign then exponent (see 754r) */
+	uByte slhs=(lhs->bits & DECNEG);
+	uByte srhs=(rhs->bits & DECNEG);
+	#if DECSUBSET
+	if (!set->extended) {		/* subset: force left-hand */
+	  op=COMPMAX;
+	  result=+1;
+	  }
+	else
+	#endif
+	if (slhs!=srhs) {	   /* signs differ */
+	  if (slhs) result=-1;	   /* rhs is max */
+	       else result=+1;	   /* lhs is max */
+	  }
+	 else if (slhs && srhs) {  /* both negative */
+	  if (lhs->exponent<rhs->exponent) result=+1;
+				      else result=-1;
+	  /* [if equal, use lhs, technically identical] */
+	  }
+	 else {			   /* both positive */
+	  if (lhs->exponent>rhs->exponent) result=+1;
+				      else result=-1;
+	  /* [ditto] */
+	  }
+	} /* numerically equal */
+      /* here result will be non-0; reverse if looking for MIN */
+      if (op==COMPMIN || op==COMPMINMAG) result=-result;
+      choice=(result>0 ? lhs : rhs);	/* choose */
+      /* copy chosen to result, rounding if need be */
+      decCopyFit(res, choice, set, &residue, status);
+      decFinish(res, set, &residue, status);
+      }
+    }
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  if (allocrhs!=NULL) free(allocrhs);	/* free any storage used */
+  if (alloclhs!=NULL) free(alloclhs);	/* .. */
+  #endif
+  return res;
+  } /* decCompareOp */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decCompare -- compare two decNumbers by numerical value	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  This routine compares A ? B without altering them.		      */
+/*								      */
+/*  Arg1 is A, a decNumber which is not a NaN			      */
+/*  Arg2 is B, a decNumber which is not a NaN			      */
+/*  Arg3 is 1 for a sign-independent compare, 0 otherwise	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  returns -1, 0, or 1 for A<B, A==B, or A>B, or BADINT if failure   */
+/*  (the only possible failure is an allocation error)		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static Int decCompare(const decNumber *lhs, const decNumber *rhs,
+		      Flag abs) {
+  Int	result;			   /* result value */
+  Int	sigr;			   /* rhs signum */
+  Int	compare;		   /* work */
+
+  result=1;				     /* assume signum(lhs) */
+  if (ISZERO(lhs)) result=0;
+  if (abs) {
+    if (ISZERO(rhs)) return result;	     /* LHS wins or both 0 */
+    /* RHS is non-zero */
+    if (result==0) return -1;		     /* LHS is 0; RHS wins */
+    /* [here, both non-zero, result=1] */
+    }
+   else {				     /* signs matter */
+    if (result && decNumberIsNegative(lhs)) result=-1;
+    sigr=1;				     /* compute signum(rhs) */
+    if (ISZERO(rhs)) sigr=0;
+     else if (decNumberIsNegative(rhs)) sigr=-1;
+    if (result > sigr) return +1;	     /* L > R, return 1 */
+    if (result < sigr) return -1;	     /* L < R, return -1 */
+    if (result==0) return 0;		       /* both 0 */
+    }
+
+  /* signums are the same; both are non-zero */
+  if ((lhs->bits | rhs->bits) & DECINF) {    /* one or more infinities */
+    if (decNumberIsInfinite(rhs)) {
+      if (decNumberIsInfinite(lhs)) result=0;/* both infinite */
+       else result=-result;		     /* only rhs infinite */
+      }
+    return result;
+    }
+  /* must compare the coefficients, allowing for exponents */
+  if (lhs->exponent>rhs->exponent) {	     /* LHS exponent larger */
+    /* swap sides, and sign */
+    const decNumber *temp=lhs;
+    lhs=rhs;
+    rhs=temp;
+    result=-result;
+    }
+  compare=decUnitCompare(lhs->lsu, D2U(lhs->digits),
+			 rhs->lsu, D2U(rhs->digits),
+			 rhs->exponent-lhs->exponent);
+  if (compare!=BADINT) compare*=result;	     /* comparison succeeded */
+  return compare;
+  } /* decCompare */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decUnitCompare -- compare two >=0 integers in Unit arrays	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  This routine compares A ? B*10**E where A and B are unit arrays   */
+/*  A is a plain integer					      */
+/*  B has an exponent of E (which must be non-negative)		      */
+/*								      */
+/*  Arg1 is A first Unit (lsu)					      */
+/*  Arg2 is A length in Units					      */
+/*  Arg3 is B first Unit (lsu)					      */
+/*  Arg4 is B length in Units					      */
+/*  Arg5 is E (0 if the units are aligned)			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  returns -1, 0, or 1 for A<B, A==B, or A>B, or BADINT if failure   */
+/*  (the only possible failure is an allocation error, which can      */
+/*  only occur if E!=0)						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static Int decUnitCompare(const Unit *a, Int alength,
+			  const Unit *b, Int blength, Int exp) {
+  Unit	*acc;			   /* accumulator for result */
+  Unit	accbuff[SD2U(DECBUFFER*2+1)]; /* local buffer */
+  Unit	*allocacc=NULL;		   /* -> allocated acc buffer, iff allocated */
+  Int	accunits, need;		   /* units in use or needed for acc */
+  const Unit *l, *r, *u;	   /* work */
+  Int	expunits, exprem, result;  /* .. */
+
+  if (exp==0) {			   /* aligned; fastpath */
+    if (alength>blength) return 1;
+    if (alength<blength) return -1;
+    /* same number of units in both -- need unit-by-unit compare */
+    l=a+alength-1;
+    r=b+alength-1;
+    for (;l>=a; l--, r--) {
+      if (*l>*r) return 1;
+      if (*l<*r) return -1;
+      }
+    return 0;			   /* all units match */
+    } /* aligned */
+
+  /* Unaligned.	 If one is >1 unit longer than the other, padded */
+  /* approximately, then can return easily */
+  if (alength>blength+(Int)D2U(exp)) return 1;
+  if (alength+1<blength+(Int)D2U(exp)) return -1;
+
+  /* Need to do a real subtract.  For this, a result buffer is needed */
+  /* even though only the sign is of interest.	Its length needs */
+  /* to be the larger of alength and padded blength, +2 */
+  need=blength+D2U(exp);		/* maximum real length of B */
+  if (need<alength) need=alength;
+  need+=2;
+  acc=accbuff;				/* assume use local buffer */
+  if (need*sizeof(Unit)>sizeof(accbuff)) {
+    allocacc=(Unit *)malloc(need*sizeof(Unit));
+    if (allocacc==NULL) return BADINT;	/* hopeless -- abandon */
+    acc=allocacc;
+    }
+  /* Calculate units and remainder from exponent. */
+  expunits=exp/DECDPUN;
+  exprem=exp%DECDPUN;
+  /* subtract [A+B*(-m)] */
+  accunits=decUnitAddSub(a, alength, b, blength, expunits, acc,
+			 -(Int)powers[exprem]);
+  /* [UnitAddSub result may have leading zeros, even on zero] */
+  if (accunits<0) result=-1;		/* negative result */
+   else {				/* non-negative result */
+    /* check units of the result before freeing any storage */
+    for (u=acc; u<acc+accunits-1 && *u==0;) u++;
+    result=(*u==0 ? 0 : +1);
+    }
+  /* clean up and return the result */
+  if (allocacc!=NULL) free(allocacc);	/* drop any storage used */
+  return result;
+  } /* decUnitCompare */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decUnitAddSub -- add or subtract two >=0 integers in Unit arrays   */
+/*								      */
+/*  This routine performs the calculation:			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  C=A+(B*M)							      */
+/*								      */
+/*  Where M is in the range -DECDPUNMAX through +DECDPUNMAX.	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  A may be shorter or longer than B.				      */
+/*								      */
+/*  Leading zeros are not removed after a calculation.	The result is */
+/*  either the same length as the longer of A and B (adding any	      */
+/*  shift), or one Unit longer than that (if a Unit carry occurred).  */
+/*								      */
+/*  A and B content are not altered unless C is also A or B.	      */
+/*  C may be the same array as A or B, but only if no zero padding is */
+/*  requested (that is, C may be B only if bshift==0).		      */
+/*  C is filled from the lsu; only those units necessary to complete  */
+/*  the calculation are referenced.				      */
+/*								      */
+/*  Arg1 is A first Unit (lsu)					      */
+/*  Arg2 is A length in Units					      */
+/*  Arg3 is B first Unit (lsu)					      */
+/*  Arg4 is B length in Units					      */
+/*  Arg5 is B shift in Units  (>=0; pads with 0 units if positive)    */
+/*  Arg6 is C first Unit (lsu)					      */
+/*  Arg7 is M, the multiplier					      */
+/*								      */
+/*  returns the count of Units written to C, which will be non-zero   */
+/*  and negated if the result is negative.  That is, the sign of the  */
+/*  returned Int is the sign of the result (positive for zero) and    */
+/*  the absolute value of the Int is the count of Units.	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  It is the caller's responsibility to make sure that C size is     */
+/*  safe, allowing space if necessary for a one-Unit carry.	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  This routine is severely performance-critical; *any* change here  */
+/*  must be measured (timed) to assure no performance degradation.    */
+/*  In particular, trickery here tends to be counter-productive, as   */
+/*  increased complexity of code hurts register optimizations on      */
+/*  register-poor architectures.  Avoiding divisions is nearly	      */
+/*  always a Good Idea, however.				      */
+/*								      */
+/* Special thanks to Rick McGuire (IBM Cambridge, MA) and Dave Clark  */
+/* (IBM Warwick, UK) for some of the ideas used in this routine.      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static Int decUnitAddSub(const Unit *a, Int alength,
+			 const Unit *b, Int blength, Int bshift,
+			 Unit *c, Int m) {
+  const Unit *alsu=a;		   /* A lsu [need to remember it] */
+  Unit *clsu=c;			   /* C ditto */
+  Unit *minC;			   /* low water mark for C */
+  Unit *maxC;			   /* high water mark for C */
+  eInt carry=0;			   /* carry integer (could be Long) */
+  Int  add;			   /* work */
+  #if DECDPUN<=4		   /* myriadal, millenary, etc. */
+  Int  est;			   /* estimated quotient */
+  #endif
+
+  #if DECTRACE
+  if (alength<1 || blength<1)
+    printf("decUnitAddSub: alen blen m %ld %ld [%ld]\n", alength, blength, m);
+  #endif
+
+  maxC=c+alength;		   /* A is usually the longer */
+  minC=c+blength;		   /* .. and B the shorter */
+  if (bshift!=0) {		   /* B is shifted; low As copy across */
+    minC+=bshift;
+    /* if in place [common], skip copy unless there's a gap [rare] */
+    if (a==c && bshift<=alength) {
+      c+=bshift;
+      a+=bshift;
+      }
+     else for (; c<clsu+bshift; a++, c++) {  /* copy needed */
+      if (a<alsu+alength) *c=*a;
+       else *c=0;
+      }
+    }
+  if (minC>maxC) { /* swap */
+    Unit *hold=minC;
+    minC=maxC;
+    maxC=hold;
+    }
+
+  /* For speed, do the addition as two loops; the first where both A */
+  /* and B contribute, and the second (if necessary) where only one or */
+  /* other of the numbers contribute. */
+  /* Carry handling is the same (i.e., duplicated) in each case. */
+  for (; c<minC; c++) {
+    carry+=*a;
+    a++;
+    carry+=((eInt)*b)*m;		/* [special-casing m=1/-1 */
+    b++;				/* here is not a win] */
+    /* here carry is new Unit of digits; it could be +ve or -ve */
+    if ((ueInt)carry<=DECDPUNMAX) {	/* fastpath 0-DECDPUNMAX */
+      *c=(Unit)carry;
+      carry=0;
+      continue;
+      }
+    #if DECDPUN==4			     /* use divide-by-multiply */
+      if (carry>=0) {
+	est=(((ueInt)carry>>11)*53687)>>18;
+	*c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1)); /* remainder */
+	carry=est;			     /* likely quotient [89%] */
+	if (*c<DECDPUNMAX+1) continue;	     /* estimate was correct */
+	carry++;
+	*c-=DECDPUNMAX+1;
+	continue;
+	}
+      /* negative case */
+      carry=carry+(eInt)(DECDPUNMAX+1)*(DECDPUNMAX+1); /* make positive */
+      est=(((ueInt)carry>>11)*53687)>>18;
+      *c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+      carry=est-(DECDPUNMAX+1);		     /* correctly negative */
+      if (*c<DECDPUNMAX+1) continue;	     /* was OK */
+      carry++;
+      *c-=DECDPUNMAX+1;
+    #elif DECDPUN==3
+      if (carry>=0) {
+	est=(((ueInt)carry>>3)*16777)>>21;
+	*c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1)); /* remainder */
+	carry=est;			     /* likely quotient [99%] */
+	if (*c<DECDPUNMAX+1) continue;	     /* estimate was correct */
+	carry++;
+	*c-=DECDPUNMAX+1;
+	continue;
+	}
+      /* negative case */
+      carry=carry+(eInt)(DECDPUNMAX+1)*(DECDPUNMAX+1); /* make positive */
+      est=(((ueInt)carry>>3)*16777)>>21;
+      *c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+      carry=est-(DECDPUNMAX+1);		     /* correctly negative */
+      if (*c<DECDPUNMAX+1) continue;	     /* was OK */
+      carry++;
+      *c-=DECDPUNMAX+1;
+    #elif DECDPUN<=2
+      /* Can use QUOT10 as carry <= 4 digits */
+      if (carry>=0) {
+	est=QUOT10(carry, DECDPUN);
+	*c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1)); /* remainder */
+	carry=est;			     /* quotient */
+	continue;
+	}
+      /* negative case */
+      carry=carry+(eInt)(DECDPUNMAX+1)*(DECDPUNMAX+1); /* make positive */
+      est=QUOT10(carry, DECDPUN);
+      *c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+      carry=est-(DECDPUNMAX+1);		     /* correctly negative */
+    #else
+      /* remainder operator is undefined if negative, so must test */
+      if ((ueInt)carry<(DECDPUNMAX+1)*2) {   /* fastpath carry +1 */
+	*c=(Unit)(carry-(DECDPUNMAX+1));     /* [helps additions] */
+	carry=1;
+	continue;
+	}
+      if (carry>=0) {
+	*c=(Unit)(carry%(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+	carry=carry/(DECDPUNMAX+1);
+	continue;
+	}
+      /* negative case */
+      carry=carry+(eInt)(DECDPUNMAX+1)*(DECDPUNMAX+1); /* make positive */
+      *c=(Unit)(carry%(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+      carry=carry/(DECDPUNMAX+1)-(DECDPUNMAX+1);
+    #endif
+    } /* c */
+
+  /* now may have one or other to complete */
+  /* [pretest to avoid loop setup/shutdown] */
+  if (c<maxC) for (; c<maxC; c++) {
+    if (a<alsu+alength) {		/* still in A */
+      carry+=*a;
+      a++;
+      }
+     else {				/* inside B */
+      carry+=((eInt)*b)*m;
+      b++;
+      }
+    /* here carry is new Unit of digits; it could be +ve or -ve and */
+    /* magnitude up to DECDPUNMAX squared */
+    if ((ueInt)carry<=DECDPUNMAX) {	/* fastpath 0-DECDPUNMAX */
+      *c=(Unit)carry;
+      carry=0;
+      continue;
+      }
+    /* result for this unit is negative or >DECDPUNMAX */
+    #if DECDPUN==4			     /* use divide-by-multiply */
+      if (carry>=0) {
+	est=(((ueInt)carry>>11)*53687)>>18;
+	*c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1)); /* remainder */
+	carry=est;			     /* likely quotient [79.7%] */
+	if (*c<DECDPUNMAX+1) continue;	     /* estimate was correct */
+	carry++;
+	*c-=DECDPUNMAX+1;
+	continue;
+	}
+      /* negative case */
+      carry=carry+(eInt)(DECDPUNMAX+1)*(DECDPUNMAX+1); /* make positive */
+      est=(((ueInt)carry>>11)*53687)>>18;
+      *c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+      carry=est-(DECDPUNMAX+1);		     /* correctly negative */
+      if (*c<DECDPUNMAX+1) continue;	     /* was OK */
+      carry++;
+      *c-=DECDPUNMAX+1;
+    #elif DECDPUN==3
+      if (carry>=0) {
+	est=(((ueInt)carry>>3)*16777)>>21;
+	*c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1)); /* remainder */
+	carry=est;			     /* likely quotient [99%] */
+	if (*c<DECDPUNMAX+1) continue;	     /* estimate was correct */
+	carry++;
+	*c-=DECDPUNMAX+1;
+	continue;
+	}
+      /* negative case */
+      carry=carry+(eInt)(DECDPUNMAX+1)*(DECDPUNMAX+1); /* make positive */
+      est=(((ueInt)carry>>3)*16777)>>21;
+      *c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+      carry=est-(DECDPUNMAX+1);		     /* correctly negative */
+      if (*c<DECDPUNMAX+1) continue;	     /* was OK */
+      carry++;
+      *c-=DECDPUNMAX+1;
+    #elif DECDPUN<=2
+      if (carry>=0) {
+	est=QUOT10(carry, DECDPUN);
+	*c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1)); /* remainder */
+	carry=est;			     /* quotient */
+	continue;
+	}
+      /* negative case */
+      carry=carry+(eInt)(DECDPUNMAX+1)*(DECDPUNMAX+1); /* make positive */
+      est=QUOT10(carry, DECDPUN);
+      *c=(Unit)(carry-est*(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+      carry=est-(DECDPUNMAX+1);		     /* correctly negative */
+    #else
+      if ((ueInt)carry<(DECDPUNMAX+1)*2){    /* fastpath carry 1 */
+	*c=(Unit)(carry-(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+	carry=1;
+	continue;
+	}
+      /* remainder operator is undefined if negative, so must test */
+      if (carry>=0) {
+	*c=(Unit)(carry%(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+	carry=carry/(DECDPUNMAX+1);
+	continue;
+	}
+      /* negative case */
+      carry=carry+(eInt)(DECDPUNMAX+1)*(DECDPUNMAX+1); /* make positive */
+      *c=(Unit)(carry%(DECDPUNMAX+1));
+      carry=carry/(DECDPUNMAX+1)-(DECDPUNMAX+1);
+    #endif
+    } /* c */
+
+  /* OK, all A and B processed; might still have carry or borrow */
+  /* return number of Units in the result, negated if a borrow */
+  if (carry==0) return c-clsu;	   /* no carry, so no more to do */
+  if (carry>0) {		   /* positive carry */
+    *c=(Unit)carry;		   /* place as new unit */
+    c++;			   /* .. */
+    return c-clsu;
+    }
+  /* -ve carry: it's a borrow; complement needed */
+  add=1;			   /* temporary carry... */
+  for (c=clsu; c<maxC; c++) {
+    add=DECDPUNMAX+add-*c;
+    if (add<=DECDPUNMAX) {
+      *c=(Unit)add;
+      add=0;
+      }
+     else {
+      *c=0;
+      add=1;
+      }
+    }
+  /* add an extra unit iff it would be non-zero */
+  #if DECTRACE
+    printf("UAS borrow: add %ld, carry %ld\n", add, carry);
+  #endif
+  if ((add-carry-1)!=0) {
+    *c=(Unit)(add-carry-1);
+    c++;		      /* interesting, include it */
+    }
+  return clsu-c;	      /* -ve result indicates borrowed */
+  } /* decUnitAddSub */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decTrim -- trim trailing zeros or normalize			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn is the number to trim or normalize			      */
+/*   set is the context to use to check for clamp		      */
+/*   all is 1 to remove all trailing zeros, 0 for just fraction ones  */
+/*   dropped returns the number of discarded trailing zeros	      */
+/*   returns dn							      */
+/*								      */
+/* If clamp is set in the context then the number of zeros trimmed    */
+/* may be limited if the exponent is high.			      */
+/* All fields are updated as required.	This is a utility operation,  */
+/* so special values are unchanged and no error is possible.	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decNumber * decTrim(decNumber *dn, decContext *set, Flag all,
+			   Int *dropped) {
+  Int	d, exp;			   /* work */
+  uInt	cut;			   /* .. */
+  Unit	*up;			   /* -> current Unit */
+
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (decCheckOperands(dn, DECUNUSED, DECUNUSED, DECUNCONT)) return dn;
+  #endif
+
+  *dropped=0;				/* assume no zeros dropped */
+  if ((dn->bits & DECSPECIAL)		/* fast exit if special .. */
+    || (*dn->lsu & 0x01)) return dn;	/* .. or odd */
+  if (ISZERO(dn)) {			/* .. or 0 */
+    dn->exponent=0;			/* (sign is preserved) */
+    return dn;
+    }
+
+  /* have a finite number which is even */
+  exp=dn->exponent;
+  cut=1;			   /* digit (1-DECDPUN) in Unit */
+  up=dn->lsu;			   /* -> current Unit */
+  for (d=0; d<dn->digits-1; d++) { /* [don't strip the final digit] */
+    /* slice by powers */
+    #if DECDPUN<=4
+      uInt quot=QUOT10(*up, cut);
+      if ((*up-quot*powers[cut])!=0) break;  /* found non-0 digit */
+    #else
+      if (*up%powers[cut]!=0) break;	     /* found non-0 digit */
+    #endif
+    /* have a trailing 0 */
+    if (!all) {			   /* trimming */
+      /* [if exp>0 then all trailing 0s are significant for trim] */
+      if (exp<=0) {		   /* if digit might be significant */
+	if (exp==0) break;	   /* then quit */
+	exp++;			   /* next digit might be significant */
+	}
+      }
+    cut++;			   /* next power */
+    if (cut>DECDPUN) {		   /* need new Unit */
+      up++;
+      cut=1;
+      }
+    } /* d */
+  if (d==0) return dn;		   /* none to drop */
+
+  /* may need to limit drop if clamping */
+  if (set->clamp) {
+    Int maxd=set->emax-set->digits+1-dn->exponent;
+    if (maxd<=0) return dn;	   /* nothing possible */
+    if (d>maxd) d=maxd;
+    }
+
+  /* effect the drop */
+  decShiftToLeast(dn->lsu, D2U(dn->digits), d);
+  dn->exponent+=d;		   /* maintain numerical value */
+  dn->digits-=d;		   /* new length */
+  *dropped=d;			   /* report the count */
+  return dn;
+  } /* decTrim */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decReverse -- reverse a Unit array in place			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   ulo    is the start of the array				      */
+/*   uhi    is the end of the array (highest Unit to include)	      */
+/*								      */
+/* The units ulo through uhi are reversed in place (if the number     */
+/* of units is odd, the middle one is untouched).  Note that the      */
+/* digit(s) in each unit are unaffected.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decReverse(Unit *ulo, Unit *uhi) {
+  Unit temp;
+  for (; ulo<uhi; ulo++, uhi--) {
+    temp=*ulo;
+    *ulo=*uhi;
+    *uhi=temp;
+    }
+  return;
+  } /* decReverse */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decShiftToMost -- shift digits in array towards most significant   */
+/*								      */
+/*   uar    is the array					      */
+/*   digits is the count of digits in use in the array		      */
+/*   shift  is the number of zeros to pad with (least significant);   */
+/*     it must be zero or positive				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   returns the new length of the integer in the array, in digits    */
+/*								      */
+/* No overflow is permitted (that is, the uar array must be known to  */
+/* be large enough to hold the result, after shifting).		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static Int decShiftToMost(Unit *uar, Int digits, Int shift) {
+  Unit	*target, *source, *first;  /* work */
+  Int	cut;			   /* odd 0's to add */
+  uInt	next;			   /* work */
+
+  if (shift==0) return digits;	   /* [fastpath] nothing to do */
+  if ((digits+shift)<=DECDPUN) {   /* [fastpath] single-unit case */
+    *uar=(Unit)(*uar*powers[shift]);
+    return digits+shift;
+    }
+
+  next=0;			   /* all paths */
+  source=uar+D2U(digits)-1;	   /* where msu comes from */
+  target=source+D2U(shift);	   /* where upper part of first cut goes */
+  cut=DECDPUN-MSUDIGITS(shift);	   /* where to slice */
+  if (cut==0) {			   /* unit-boundary case */
+    for (; source>=uar; source--, target--) *target=*source;
+    }
+   else {
+    first=uar+D2U(digits+shift)-1; /* where msu of source will end up */
+    for (; source>=uar; source--, target--) {
+      /* split the source Unit and accumulate remainder for next */
+      #if DECDPUN<=4
+	uInt quot=QUOT10(*source, cut);
+	uInt rem=*source-quot*powers[cut];
+	next+=quot;
+      #else
+	uInt rem=*source%powers[cut];
+	next+=*source/powers[cut];
+      #endif
+      if (target<=first) *target=(Unit)next;   /* write to target iff valid */
+      next=rem*powers[DECDPUN-cut];	       /* save remainder for next Unit */
+      }
+    } /* shift-move */
+
+  /* propagate any partial unit to one below and clear the rest */
+  for (; target>=uar; target--) {
+    *target=(Unit)next;
+    next=0;
+    }
+  return digits+shift;
+  } /* decShiftToMost */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decShiftToLeast -- shift digits in array towards least significant */
+/*								      */
+/*   uar   is the array						      */
+/*   units is length of the array, in units			      */
+/*   shift is the number of digits to remove from the lsu end; it     */
+/*     must be zero or positive and <= than units*DECDPUN.	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   returns the new length of the integer in the array, in units     */
+/*								      */
+/* Removed digits are discarded (lost).	 Units not required to hold   */
+/* the final result are unchanged.				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static Int decShiftToLeast(Unit *uar, Int units, Int shift) {
+  Unit	*target, *up;		   /* work */
+  Int	cut, count;		   /* work */
+  Int	quot, rem;		   /* for division */
+
+  if (shift==0) return units;	   /* [fastpath] nothing to do */
+  if (shift==units*DECDPUN) {	   /* [fastpath] little to do */
+    *uar=0;			   /* all digits cleared gives zero */
+    return 1;			   /* leaves just the one */
+    }
+
+  target=uar;			   /* both paths */
+  cut=MSUDIGITS(shift);
+  if (cut==DECDPUN) {		   /* unit-boundary case; easy */
+    up=uar+D2U(shift);
+    for (; up<uar+units; target++, up++) *target=*up;
+    return target-uar;
+    }
+
+  /* messier */
+  up=uar+D2U(shift-cut);	   /* source; correct to whole Units */
+  count=units*DECDPUN-shift;	   /* the maximum new length */
+  #if DECDPUN<=4
+    quot=QUOT10(*up, cut);
+  #else
+    quot=*up/powers[cut];
+  #endif
+  for (; ; target++) {
+    *target=(Unit)quot;
+    count-=(DECDPUN-cut);
+    if (count<=0) break;
+    up++;
+    quot=*up;
+    #if DECDPUN<=4
+      quot=QUOT10(quot, cut);
+      rem=*up-quot*powers[cut];
+    #else
+      rem=quot%powers[cut];
+      quot=quot/powers[cut];
+    #endif
+    *target=(Unit)(*target+rem*powers[DECDPUN-cut]);
+    count-=cut;
+    if (count<=0) break;
+    }
+  return target-uar+1;
+  } /* decShiftToLeast */
+
+#if DECSUBSET
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decRoundOperand -- round an operand	[used for subset only]	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn is the number to round (dn->digits is > set->digits)	      */
+/*   set is the relevant context				      */
+/*   status is the status accumulator				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   returns an allocated decNumber with the rounded result.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* lostDigits and other status may be set by this.		      */
+/*								      */
+/* Since the input is an operand, it must not be modified.	      */
+/* Instead, return an allocated decNumber, rounded as required.	      */
+/* It is the caller's responsibility to free the allocated storage.   */
+/*								      */
+/* If no storage is available then the result cannot be used, so NULL */
+/* is returned.							      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decNumber *decRoundOperand(const decNumber *dn, decContext *set,
+				  uInt *status) {
+  decNumber *res;			/* result structure */
+  uInt newstatus=0;			/* status from round */
+  Int  residue=0;			/* rounding accumulator */
+
+  /* Allocate storage for the returned decNumber, big enough for the */
+  /* length specified by the context */
+  res=(decNumber *)malloc(sizeof(decNumber)
+			  +(D2U(set->digits)-1)*sizeof(Unit));
+  if (res==NULL) {
+    *status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;
+    return NULL;
+    }
+  decCopyFit(res, dn, set, &residue, &newstatus);
+  decApplyRound(res, set, residue, &newstatus);
+
+  /* If that set Inexact then "lost digits" is raised... */
+  if (newstatus & DEC_Inexact) newstatus|=DEC_Lost_digits;
+  *status|=newstatus;
+  return res;
+  } /* decRoundOperand */
+#endif
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decCopyFit -- copy a number, truncating the coefficient if needed  */
+/*								      */
+/*   dest is the target decNumber				      */
+/*   src  is the source decNumber				      */
+/*   set is the context [used for length (digits) and rounding mode]  */
+/*   residue is the residue accumulator				      */
+/*   status contains the current status to be updated		      */
+/*								      */
+/* (dest==src is allowed and will be a no-op if fits)		      */
+/* All fields are updated as required.				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decCopyFit(decNumber *dest, const decNumber *src,
+		       decContext *set, Int *residue, uInt *status) {
+  dest->bits=src->bits;
+  dest->exponent=src->exponent;
+  decSetCoeff(dest, set, src->lsu, src->digits, residue, status);
+  } /* decCopyFit */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decSetCoeff -- set the coefficient of a number		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn	   is the number whose coefficient array is to be set.	      */
+/*	   It must have space for set->digits digits		      */
+/*   set   is the context [for size]				      */
+/*   lsu   -> lsu of the source coefficient [may be dn->lsu]	      */
+/*   len   is digits in the source coefficient [may be dn->digits]    */
+/*   residue is the residue accumulator.  This has values as in	      */
+/*	   decApplyRound, and will be unchanged unless the	      */
+/*	   target size is less than len.  In this case, the	      */
+/*	   coefficient is truncated and the residue is updated to     */
+/*	   reflect the previous residue and the dropped digits.	      */
+/*   status is the status accumulator, as usual			      */
+/*								      */
+/* The coefficient may already be in the number, or it can be an      */
+/* external intermediate array.	 If it is in the number, lsu must ==  */
+/* dn->lsu and len must == dn->digits.				      */
+/*								      */
+/* Note that the coefficient length (len) may be < set->digits, and   */
+/* in this case this merely copies the coefficient (or is a no-op     */
+/* if dn->lsu==lsu).						      */
+/*								      */
+/* Note also that (only internally, from decQuantizeOp and	      */
+/* decSetSubnormal) the value of set->digits may be less than one,    */
+/* indicating a round to left.	This routine handles that case	      */
+/* correctly; caller ensures space.				      */
+/*								      */
+/* dn->digits, dn->lsu (and as required), and dn->exponent are	      */
+/* updated as necessary.   dn->bits (sign) is unchanged.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* DEC_Rounded status is set if any digits are discarded.	      */
+/* DEC_Inexact status is set if any non-zero digits are discarded, or */
+/*			 incoming residue was non-0 (implies rounded) */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* mapping array: maps 0-9 to canonical residues, so that a residue */
+/* can be adjusted in the range [-1, +1] and achieve correct rounding */
+/*			       0  1  2	3  4  5	 6  7  8  9 */
+static const uByte resmap[10]={0, 3, 3, 3, 3, 5, 7, 7, 7, 7};
+static void decSetCoeff(decNumber *dn, decContext *set, const Unit *lsu,
+			Int len, Int *residue, uInt *status) {
+  Int	discard;	      /* number of digits to discard */
+  uInt	cut;		      /* cut point in Unit */
+  const Unit *up;	      /* work */
+  Unit	*target;	      /* .. */
+  Int	count;		      /* .. */
+  #if DECDPUN<=4
+  uInt	temp;		      /* .. */
+  #endif
+
+  discard=len-set->digits;    /* digits to discard */
+  if (discard<=0) {	      /* no digits are being discarded */
+    if (dn->lsu!=lsu) {	      /* copy needed */
+      /* copy the coefficient array to the result number; no shift needed */
+      count=len;	      /* avoids D2U */
+      up=lsu;
+      for (target=dn->lsu; count>0; target++, up++, count-=DECDPUN)
+	*target=*up;
+      dn->digits=len;	      /* set the new length */
+      }
+    /* dn->exponent and residue are unchanged, record any inexactitude */
+    if (*residue!=0) *status|=(DEC_Inexact | DEC_Rounded);
+    return;
+    }
+
+  /* some digits must be discarded ... */
+  dn->exponent+=discard;      /* maintain numerical value */
+  *status|=DEC_Rounded;	      /* accumulate Rounded status */
+  if (*residue>1) *residue=1; /* previous residue now to right, so reduce */
+
+  if (discard>len) {	      /* everything, +1, is being discarded */
+    /* guard digit is 0 */
+    /* residue is all the number [NB could be all 0s] */
+    if (*residue<=0) {	      /* not already positive */
+      count=len;	      /* avoids D2U */
+      for (up=lsu; count>0; up++, count-=DECDPUN) if (*up!=0) { /* found non-0 */
+	*residue=1;
+	break;		      /* no need to check any others */
+	}
+      }
+    if (*residue!=0) *status|=DEC_Inexact; /* record inexactitude */
+    *dn->lsu=0;		      /* coefficient will now be 0 */
+    dn->digits=1;	      /* .. */
+    return;
+    } /* total discard */
+
+  /* partial discard [most common case] */
+  /* here, at least the first (most significant) discarded digit exists */
+
+  /* spin up the number, noting residue during the spin, until get to */
+  /* the Unit with the first discarded digit.  When reach it, extract */
+  /* it and remember its position */
+  count=0;
+  for (up=lsu;; up++) {
+    count+=DECDPUN;
+    if (count>=discard) break; /* full ones all checked */
+    if (*up!=0) *residue=1;
+    } /* up */
+
+  /* here up -> Unit with first discarded digit */
+  cut=discard-(count-DECDPUN)-1;
+  if (cut==DECDPUN-1) {	      /* unit-boundary case (fast) */
+    Unit half=(Unit)powers[DECDPUN]>>1;
+    /* set residue directly */
+    if (*up>=half) {
+      if (*up>half) *residue=7;
+      else *residue+=5;	      /* add sticky bit */
+      }
+     else { /* <half */
+      if (*up!=0) *residue=3; /* [else is 0, leave as sticky bit] */
+      }
+    if (set->digits<=0) {     /* special for Quantize/Subnormal :-( */
+      *dn->lsu=0;	      /* .. result is 0 */
+      dn->digits=1;	      /* .. */
+      }
+     else {		      /* shift to least */
+      count=set->digits;      /* now digits to end up with */
+      dn->digits=count;	      /* set the new length */
+      up++;		      /* move to next */
+      /* on unit boundary, so shift-down copy loop is simple */
+      for (target=dn->lsu; count>0; target++, up++, count-=DECDPUN)
+	*target=*up;
+      }
+    } /* unit-boundary case */
+
+   else { /* discard digit is in low digit(s), and not top digit */
+    uInt  discard1;		   /* first discarded digit */
+    uInt  quot, rem;		   /* for divisions */
+    if (cut==0) quot=*up;	   /* is at bottom of unit */
+     else /* cut>0 */ {		   /* it's not at bottom of unit */
+      #if DECDPUN<=4
+	quot=QUOT10(*up, cut);
+	rem=*up-quot*powers[cut];
+      #else
+	rem=*up%powers[cut];
+	quot=*up/powers[cut];
+      #endif
+      if (rem!=0) *residue=1;
+      }
+    /* discard digit is now at bottom of quot */
+    #if DECDPUN<=4
+      temp=(quot*6554)>>16;	   /* fast /10 */
+      /* Vowels algorithm here not a win (9 instructions) */
+      discard1=quot-X10(temp);
+      quot=temp;
+    #else
+      discard1=quot%10;
+      quot=quot/10;
+    #endif
+    /* here, discard1 is the guard digit, and residue is everything */
+    /* else [use mapping array to accumulate residue safely] */
+    *residue+=resmap[discard1];
+    cut++;			   /* update cut */
+    /* here: up -> Unit of the array with bottom digit */
+    /*	     cut is the division point for each Unit */
+    /*	     quot holds the uncut high-order digits for the current unit */
+    if (set->digits<=0) {	   /* special for Quantize/Subnormal :-( */
+      *dn->lsu=0;		   /* .. result is 0 */
+      dn->digits=1;		   /* .. */
+      }
+     else {			   /* shift to least needed */
+      count=set->digits;	   /* now digits to end up with */
+      dn->digits=count;		   /* set the new length */
+      /* shift-copy the coefficient array to the result number */
+      for (target=dn->lsu; ; target++) {
+	*target=(Unit)quot;
+	count-=(DECDPUN-cut);
+	if (count<=0) break;
+	up++;
+	quot=*up;
+	#if DECDPUN<=4
+	  quot=QUOT10(quot, cut);
+	  rem=*up-quot*powers[cut];
+	#else
+	  rem=quot%powers[cut];
+	  quot=quot/powers[cut];
+	#endif
+	*target=(Unit)(*target+rem*powers[DECDPUN-cut]);
+	count-=cut;
+	if (count<=0) break;
+	} /* shift-copy loop */
+      } /* shift to least */
+    } /* not unit boundary */
+
+  if (*residue!=0) *status|=DEC_Inexact; /* record inexactitude */
+  return;
+  } /* decSetCoeff */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decApplyRound -- apply pending rounding to a number		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn	   is the number, with space for set->digits digits	      */
+/*   set   is the context [for size and rounding mode]		      */
+/*   residue indicates pending rounding, being any accumulated	      */
+/*	   guard and sticky information.  It may be:		      */
+/*	   6-9: rounding digit is >5				      */
+/*	   5:	rounding digit is exactly half-way		      */
+/*	   1-4: rounding digit is <5 and >0			      */
+/*	   0:	the coefficient is exact			      */
+/*	  -1:	as 1, but the hidden digits are subtractive, that     */
+/*		is, of the opposite sign to dn.	 In this case the     */
+/*		coefficient must be non-0.  This case occurs when     */
+/*		subtracting a small number (which can be reduced to   */
+/*		a sticky bit); see decAddOp.			      */
+/*   status is the status accumulator, as usual			      */
+/*								      */
+/* This routine applies rounding while keeping the length of the      */
+/* coefficient constant.  The exponent and status are unchanged	      */
+/* except if:							      */
+/*								      */
+/*   -- the coefficient was increased and is all nines (in which      */
+/*	case Overflow could occur, and is handled directly here so    */
+/*	the caller does not need to re-test for overflow)	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   -- the coefficient was decreased and becomes all nines (in which */
+/*	case Underflow could occur, and is also handled directly).    */
+/*								      */
+/* All fields in dn are updated as required.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decApplyRound(decNumber *dn, decContext *set, Int residue,
+			  uInt *status) {
+  Int  bump;		      /* 1 if coefficient needs to be incremented */
+			      /* -1 if coefficient needs to be decremented */
+
+  if (residue==0) return;     /* nothing to apply */
+
+  bump=0;		      /* assume a smooth ride */
+
+  /* now decide whether, and how, to round, depending on mode */
+  switch (set->round) {
+    case DEC_ROUND_05UP: {    /* round zero or five up (for reround) */
+      /* This is the same as DEC_ROUND_DOWN unless there is a */
+      /* positive residue and the lsd of dn is 0 or 5, in which case */
+      /* it is bumped; when residue is <0, the number is therefore */
+      /* bumped down unless the final digit was 1 or 6 (in which */
+      /* case it is bumped down and then up -- a no-op) */
+      Int lsd5=*dn->lsu%5;     /* get lsd and quintate */
+      if (residue<0 && lsd5!=1) bump=-1;
+       else if (residue>0 && lsd5==0) bump=1;
+      /* [bump==1 could be applied directly; use common path for clarity] */
+      break;} /* r-05 */
+
+    case DEC_ROUND_DOWN: {
+      /* no change, except if negative residue */
+      if (residue<0) bump=-1;
+      break;} /* r-d */
+
+    case DEC_ROUND_HALF_DOWN: {
+      if (residue>5) bump=1;
+      break;} /* r-h-d */
+
+    case DEC_ROUND_HALF_EVEN: {
+      if (residue>5) bump=1;		/* >0.5 goes up */
+       else if (residue==5) {		/* exactly 0.5000... */
+	/* 0.5 goes up iff [new] lsd is odd */
+	if (*dn->lsu & 0x01) bump=1;
+	}
+      break;} /* r-h-e */
+
+    case DEC_ROUND_HALF_UP: {
+      if (residue>=5) bump=1;
+      break;} /* r-h-u */
+
+    case DEC_ROUND_UP: {
+      if (residue>0) bump=1;
+      break;} /* r-u */
+
+    case DEC_ROUND_CEILING: {
+      /* same as _UP for positive numbers, and as _DOWN for negatives */
+      /* [negative residue cannot occur on 0] */
+      if (decNumberIsNegative(dn)) {
+	if (residue<0) bump=-1;
+	}
+       else {
+	if (residue>0) bump=1;
+	}
+      break;} /* r-c */
+
+    case DEC_ROUND_FLOOR: {
+      /* same as _UP for negative numbers, and as _DOWN for positive */
+      /* [negative residue cannot occur on 0] */
+      if (!decNumberIsNegative(dn)) {
+	if (residue<0) bump=-1;
+	}
+       else {
+	if (residue>0) bump=1;
+	}
+      break;} /* r-f */
+
+    default: {	    /* e.g., DEC_ROUND_MAX */
+      *status|=DEC_Invalid_context;
+      #if DECTRACE || (DECCHECK && DECVERB)
+      printf("Unknown rounding mode: %d\n", set->round);
+      #endif
+      break;}
+    } /* switch */
+
+  /* now bump the number, up or down, if need be */
+  if (bump==0) return;			     /* no action required */
+
+  /* Simply use decUnitAddSub unless bumping up and the number is */
+  /* all nines.	 In this special case set to 100... explicitly */
+  /* and adjust the exponent by one (as otherwise could overflow */
+  /* the array) */
+  /* Similarly handle all-nines result if bumping down. */
+  if (bump>0) {
+    Unit *up;				     /* work */
+    uInt count=dn->digits;		     /* digits to be checked */
+    for (up=dn->lsu; ; up++) {
+      if (count<=DECDPUN) {
+	/* this is the last Unit (the msu) */
+	if (*up!=powers[count]-1) break;     /* not still 9s */
+	/* here if it, too, is all nines */
+	*up=(Unit)powers[count-1];	     /* here 999 -> 100 etc. */
+	for (up=up-1; up>=dn->lsu; up--) *up=0; /* others all to 0 */
+	dn->exponent++;			     /* and bump exponent */
+	/* [which, very rarely, could cause Overflow...] */
+	if ((dn->exponent+dn->digits)>set->emax+1) {
+	  decSetOverflow(dn, set, status);
+	  }
+	return;				     /* done */
+	}
+      /* a full unit to check, with more to come */
+      if (*up!=DECDPUNMAX) break;	     /* not still 9s */
+      count-=DECDPUN;
+      } /* up */
+    } /* bump>0 */
+   else {				     /* -1 */
+    /* here checking for a pre-bump of 1000... (leading 1, all */
+    /* other digits zero) */
+    Unit *up, *sup;			     /* work */
+    uInt count=dn->digits;		     /* digits to be checked */
+    for (up=dn->lsu; ; up++) {
+      if (count<=DECDPUN) {
+	/* this is the last Unit (the msu) */
+	if (*up!=powers[count-1]) break;     /* not 100.. */
+	/* here if have the 1000... case */
+	sup=up;				     /* save msu pointer */
+	*up=(Unit)powers[count]-1;	     /* here 100 in msu -> 999 */
+	/* others all to all-nines, too */
+	for (up=up-1; up>=dn->lsu; up--) *up=(Unit)powers[DECDPUN]-1;
+	dn->exponent--;			     /* and bump exponent */
+
+	/* iff the number was at the subnormal boundary (exponent=etiny) */
+	/* then the exponent is now out of range, so it will in fact get */
+	/* clamped to etiny and the final 9 dropped. */
+	/* printf(">> emin=%d exp=%d sdig=%d\n", set->emin, */
+	/*	  dn->exponent, set->digits); */
+	if (dn->exponent+1==set->emin-set->digits+1) {
+	  if (count==1 && dn->digits==1) *sup=0;  /* here 9 -> 0[.9] */
+	   else {
+	    *sup=(Unit)powers[count-1]-1;    /* here 999.. in msu -> 99.. */
+	    dn->digits--;
+	    }
+	  dn->exponent++;
+	  *status|=DEC_Underflow | DEC_Subnormal | DEC_Inexact | DEC_Rounded;
+	  }
+	return;				     /* done */
+	}
+
+      /* a full unit to check, with more to come */
+      if (*up!=0) break;		     /* not still 0s */
+      count-=DECDPUN;
+      } /* up */
+
+    } /* bump<0 */
+
+  /* Actual bump needed.  Do it. */
+  decUnitAddSub(dn->lsu, D2U(dn->digits), uarrone, 1, 0, dn->lsu, bump);
+  } /* decApplyRound */
+
+#if DECSUBSET
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFinish -- finish processing a number			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn is the number						      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*   residue is the rounding accumulator (as in decApplyRound)	      */
+/*   status is the accumulator					      */
+/*								      */
+/* This finishes off the current number by:			      */
+/*    1. If not extended:					      */
+/*	 a. Converting a zero result to clean '0'		      */
+/*	 b. Reducing positive exponents to 0, if would fit in digits  */
+/*    2. Checking for overflow and subnormals (always)		      */
+/* Note this is just Finalize when no subset arithmetic.	      */
+/* All fields are updated as required.				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decFinish(decNumber *dn, decContext *set, Int *residue,
+		      uInt *status) {
+  if (!set->extended) {
+    if ISZERO(dn) {		   /* value is zero */
+      dn->exponent=0;		   /* clean exponent .. */
+      dn->bits=0;		   /* .. and sign */
+      return;			   /* no error possible */
+      }
+    if (dn->exponent>=0) {	   /* non-negative exponent */
+      /* >0; reduce to integer if possible */
+      if (set->digits >= (dn->exponent+dn->digits)) {
+	dn->digits=decShiftToMost(dn->lsu, dn->digits, dn->exponent);
+	dn->exponent=0;
+	}
+      }
+    } /* !extended */
+
+  decFinalize(dn, set, residue, status);
+  } /* decFinish */
+#endif
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFinalize -- final check, clamp, and round of a number	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn is the number						      */
+/*   set is the context						      */
+/*   residue is the rounding accumulator (as in decApplyRound)	      */
+/*   status is the status accumulator				      */
+/*								      */
+/* This finishes off the current number by checking for subnormal     */
+/* results, applying any pending rounding, checking for overflow,     */
+/* and applying any clamping.					      */
+/* Underflow and overflow conditions are raised as appropriate.	      */
+/* All fields are updated as required.				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decFinalize(decNumber *dn, decContext *set, Int *residue,
+			uInt *status) {
+  Int shift;				/* shift needed if clamping */
+  Int tinyexp=set->emin-dn->digits+1;	/* precalculate subnormal boundary */
+
+  /* Must be careful, here, when checking the exponent as the */
+  /* adjusted exponent could overflow 31 bits [because it may already */
+  /* be up to twice the expected]. */
+
+  /* First test for subnormal.	This must be done before any final */
+  /* round as the result could be rounded to Nmin or 0. */
+  if (dn->exponent<=tinyexp) {		/* prefilter */
+    Int comp;
+    decNumber nmin;
+    /* A very nasty case here is dn == Nmin and residue<0 */
+    if (dn->exponent<tinyexp) {
+      /* Go handle subnormals; this will apply round if needed. */
+      decSetSubnormal(dn, set, residue, status);
+      return;
+      }
+    /* Equals case: only subnormal if dn=Nmin and negative residue */
+    decNumberZero(&nmin);
+    nmin.lsu[0]=1;
+    nmin.exponent=set->emin;
+    comp=decCompare(dn, &nmin, 1);		  /* (signless compare) */
+    if (comp==BADINT) {				  /* oops */
+      *status|=DEC_Insufficient_storage;	  /* abandon... */
+      return;
+      }
+    if (*residue<0 && comp==0) {		  /* neg residue and dn==Nmin */
+      decApplyRound(dn, set, *residue, status);	  /* might force down */
+      decSetSubnormal(dn, set, residue, status);
+      return;
+      }
+    }
+
+  /* now apply any pending round (this could raise overflow). */
+  if (*residue!=0) decApplyRound(dn, set, *residue, status);
+
+  /* Check for overflow [redundant in the 'rare' case] or clamp */
+  if (dn->exponent<=set->emax-set->digits+1) return;   /* neither needed */
+
+
+  /* here when might have an overflow or clamp to do */
+  if (dn->exponent>set->emax-dn->digits+1) {	       /* too big */
+    decSetOverflow(dn, set, status);
+    return;
+    }
+  /* here when the result is normal but in clamp range */
+  if (!set->clamp) return;
+
+  /* here when need to apply the IEEE exponent clamp (fold-down) */
+  shift=dn->exponent-(set->emax-set->digits+1);
+
+  /* shift coefficient (if non-zero) */
+  if (!ISZERO(dn)) {
+    dn->digits=decShiftToMost(dn->lsu, dn->digits, shift);
+    }
+  dn->exponent-=shift;	 /* adjust the exponent to match */
+  *status|=DEC_Clamped;	 /* and record the dirty deed */
+  return;
+  } /* decFinalize */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decSetOverflow -- set number to proper overflow value	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn is the number (used for sign [only] and result)		      */
+/*   set is the context [used for the rounding mode, etc.]	      */
+/*   status contains the current status to be updated		      */
+/*								      */
+/* This sets the sign of a number and sets its value to either	      */
+/* Infinity or the maximum finite value, depending on the sign of     */
+/* dn and the rounding mode, following IEEE 854 rules.		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decSetOverflow(decNumber *dn, decContext *set, uInt *status) {
+  Flag needmax=0;		   /* result is maximum finite value */
+  uByte sign=dn->bits&DECNEG;	   /* clean and save sign bit */
+
+  if (ISZERO(dn)) {		   /* zero does not overflow magnitude */
+    Int emax=set->emax;			     /* limit value */
+    if (set->clamp) emax-=set->digits-1;     /* lower if clamping */
+    if (dn->exponent>emax) {		     /* clamp required */
+      dn->exponent=emax;
+      *status|=DEC_Clamped;
+      }
+    return;
+    }
+
+  decNumberZero(dn);
+  switch (set->round) {
+    case DEC_ROUND_DOWN: {
+      needmax=1;		   /* never Infinity */
+      break;} /* r-d */
+    case DEC_ROUND_05UP: {
+      needmax=1;		   /* never Infinity */
+      break;} /* r-05 */
+    case DEC_ROUND_CEILING: {
+      if (sign) needmax=1;	   /* Infinity if non-negative */
+      break;} /* r-c */
+    case DEC_ROUND_FLOOR: {
+      if (!sign) needmax=1;	   /* Infinity if negative */
+      break;} /* r-f */
+    default: break;		   /* Infinity in all other cases */
+    }
+  if (needmax) {
+    decSetMaxValue(dn, set);
+    dn->bits=sign;		   /* set sign */
+    }
+   else dn->bits=sign|DECINF;	   /* Value is +/-Infinity */
+  *status|=DEC_Overflow | DEC_Inexact | DEC_Rounded;
+  } /* decSetOverflow */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decSetMaxValue -- set number to +Nmax (maximum normal value)	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn is the number to set					      */
+/*   set is the context [used for digits and emax]		      */
+/*								      */
+/* This sets the number to the maximum positive value.		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decSetMaxValue(decNumber *dn, decContext *set) {
+  Unit *up;			   /* work */
+  Int count=set->digits;	   /* nines to add */
+  dn->digits=count;
+  /* fill in all nines to set maximum value */
+  for (up=dn->lsu; ; up++) {
+    if (count>DECDPUN) *up=DECDPUNMAX;	/* unit full o'nines */
+     else {				/* this is the msu */
+      *up=(Unit)(powers[count]-1);
+      break;
+      }
+    count-=DECDPUN;		   /* filled those digits */
+    } /* up */
+  dn->bits=0;			   /* + sign */
+  dn->exponent=set->emax-set->digits+1;
+  } /* decSetMaxValue */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decSetSubnormal -- process value whose exponent is <Emin	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn is the number (used as input as well as output; it may have   */
+/*	   an allowed subnormal value, which may need to be rounded)  */
+/*   set is the context [used for the rounding mode]		      */
+/*   residue is any pending residue				      */
+/*   status contains the current status to be updated		      */
+/*								      */
+/* If subset mode, set result to zero and set Underflow flags.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* Value may be zero with a low exponent; this does not set Subnormal */
+/* but the exponent will be clamped to Etiny.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Otherwise ensure exponent is not out of range, and round as	      */
+/* necessary.  Underflow is set if the result is Inexact.	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decSetSubnormal(decNumber *dn, decContext *set, Int *residue,
+			    uInt *status) {
+  decContext workset;	      /* work */
+  Int	     etiny, adjust;   /* .. */
+
+  #if DECSUBSET
+  /* simple set to zero and 'hard underflow' for subset */
+  if (!set->extended) {
+    decNumberZero(dn);
+    /* always full overflow */
+    *status|=DEC_Underflow | DEC_Subnormal | DEC_Inexact | DEC_Rounded;
+    return;
+    }
+  #endif
+
+  /* Full arithmetic -- allow subnormals, rounded to minimum exponent */
+  /* (Etiny) if needed */
+  etiny=set->emin-(set->digits-1);	/* smallest allowed exponent */
+
+  if ISZERO(dn) {			/* value is zero */
+    /* residue can never be non-zero here */
+    #if DECCHECK
+      if (*residue!=0) {
+	printf("++ Subnormal 0 residue %ld\n", (LI)*residue);
+	*status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+	}
+    #endif
+    if (dn->exponent<etiny) {		/* clamp required */
+      dn->exponent=etiny;
+      *status|=DEC_Clamped;
+      }
+    return;
+    }
+
+  *status|=DEC_Subnormal;		/* have a non-zero subnormal */
+  adjust=etiny-dn->exponent;		/* calculate digits to remove */
+  if (adjust<=0) {			/* not out of range; unrounded */
+    /* residue can never be non-zero here, except in the Nmin-residue */
+    /* case (which is a subnormal result), so can take fast-path here */
+    /* it may already be inexact (from setting the coefficient) */
+    if (*status&DEC_Inexact) *status|=DEC_Underflow;
+    return;
+    }
+
+  /* adjust>0, so need to rescale the result so exponent becomes Etiny */
+  /* [this code is similar to that in rescale] */
+  workset=*set;				/* clone rounding, etc. */
+  workset.digits=dn->digits-adjust;	/* set requested length */
+  workset.emin-=adjust;			/* and adjust emin to match */
+  /* [note that the latter can be <1, here, similar to Rescale case] */
+  decSetCoeff(dn, &workset, dn->lsu, dn->digits, residue, status);
+  decApplyRound(dn, &workset, *residue, status);
+
+  /* Use 754R/854 default rule: Underflow is set iff Inexact */
+  /* [independent of whether trapped] */
+  if (*status&DEC_Inexact) *status|=DEC_Underflow;
+
+  /* if rounded up a 999s case, exponent will be off by one; adjust */
+  /* back if so [it will fit, because it was shortened earlier] */
+  if (dn->exponent>etiny) {
+    dn->digits=decShiftToMost(dn->lsu, dn->digits, 1);
+    dn->exponent--;			/* (re)adjust the exponent. */
+    }
+
+  /* if rounded to zero, it is by definition clamped... */
+  if (ISZERO(dn)) *status|=DEC_Clamped;
+  } /* decSetSubnormal */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decCheckMath - check entry conditions for a math function	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   This checks the context and the operand			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   rhs is the operand to check				      */
+/*   set is the context to check				      */
+/*   status is unchanged if both are good			      */
+/*								      */
+/* returns non-zero if status is changed, 0 otherwise		      */
+/*								      */
+/* Restrictions enforced:					      */
+/*								      */
+/*   digits, emax, and -emin in the context must be less than	      */
+/*   DEC_MAX_MATH (999999), and A must be within these bounds if      */
+/*   non-zero.	Invalid_operation is set in the status if a	      */
+/*   restriction is violated.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static uInt decCheckMath(const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set,
+			 uInt *status) {
+  uInt save=*status;			     /* record */
+  if (set->digits>DEC_MAX_MATH
+   || set->emax>DEC_MAX_MATH
+   || -set->emin>DEC_MAX_MATH) *status|=DEC_Invalid_context;
+   else if ((rhs->digits>DEC_MAX_MATH
+     || rhs->exponent+rhs->digits>DEC_MAX_MATH+1
+     || rhs->exponent+rhs->digits<2*(1-DEC_MAX_MATH))
+     && !ISZERO(rhs)) *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+  return (*status!=save);
+  } /* decCheckMath */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decGetInt -- get integer from a number			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn is the number [which will not be altered]		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   returns one of:						      */
+/*     BADINT if there is a non-zero fraction			      */
+/*     the converted integer					      */
+/*     BIGEVEN if the integer is even and magnitude > 2*10**9	      */
+/*     BIGODD  if the integer is odd  and magnitude > 2*10**9	      */
+/*								      */
+/* This checks and gets a whole number from the input decNumber.      */
+/* The sign can be determined from dn by the caller when BIGEVEN or   */
+/* BIGODD is returned.						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static Int decGetInt(const decNumber *dn) {
+  Int  theInt;				/* result accumulator */
+  const Unit *up;			/* work */
+  Int  got;				/* digits (real or not) processed */
+  Int  ilength=dn->digits+dn->exponent; /* integral length */
+  Flag neg=decNumberIsNegative(dn);	/* 1 if -ve */
+
+  /* The number must be an integer that fits in 10 digits */
+  /* Assert, here, that 10 is enough for any rescale Etiny */
+  #if DEC_MAX_EMAX > 999999999
+    #error GetInt may need updating [for Emax]
+  #endif
+  #if DEC_MIN_EMIN < -999999999
+    #error GetInt may need updating [for Emin]
+  #endif
+  if (ISZERO(dn)) return 0;		/* zeros are OK, with any exponent */
+
+  up=dn->lsu;				/* ready for lsu */
+  theInt=0;				/* ready to accumulate */
+  if (dn->exponent>=0) {		/* relatively easy */
+    /* no fractional part [usual]; allow for positive exponent */
+    got=dn->exponent;
+    }
+   else { /* -ve exponent; some fractional part to check and discard */
+    Int count=-dn->exponent;		/* digits to discard */
+    /* spin up whole units until reach the Unit with the unit digit */
+    for (; count>=DECDPUN; up++) {
+      if (*up!=0) return BADINT;	/* non-zero Unit to discard */
+      count-=DECDPUN;
+      }
+    if (count==0) got=0;		/* [a multiple of DECDPUN] */
+     else {				/* [not multiple of DECDPUN] */
+      Int rem;				/* work */
+      /* slice off fraction digits and check for non-zero */
+      #if DECDPUN<=4
+	theInt=QUOT10(*up, count);
+	rem=*up-theInt*powers[count];
+      #else
+	rem=*up%powers[count];		/* slice off discards */
+	theInt=*up/powers[count];
+      #endif
+      if (rem!=0) return BADINT;	/* non-zero fraction */
+      /* it looks good */
+      got=DECDPUN-count;		/* number of digits so far */
+      up++;				/* ready for next */
+      }
+    }
+  /* now it's known there's no fractional part */
+
+  /* tricky code now, to accumulate up to 9.3 digits */
+  if (got==0) {theInt=*up; got+=DECDPUN; up++;} /* ensure lsu is there */
+
+  if (ilength<11) {
+    Int save=theInt;
+    /* collect any remaining unit(s) */
+    for (; got<ilength; up++) {
+      theInt+=*up*powers[got];
+      got+=DECDPUN;
+      }
+    if (ilength==10) {			/* need to check for wrap */
+      if (theInt/(Int)powers[got-DECDPUN]!=(Int)*(up-1)) ilength=11;
+	 /* [that test also disallows the BADINT result case] */
+       else if (neg && theInt>1999999997) ilength=11;
+       else if (!neg && theInt>999999999) ilength=11;
+      if (ilength==11) theInt=save;	/* restore correct low bit */
+      }
+    }
+
+  if (ilength>10) {			/* too big */
+    if (theInt&1) return BIGODD;	/* bottom bit 1 */
+    return BIGEVEN;			/* bottom bit 0 */
+    }
+
+  if (neg) theInt=-theInt;		/* apply sign */
+  return theInt;
+  } /* decGetInt */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decDecap -- decapitate the coefficient of a number		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn	  is the number to be decapitated			      */
+/*   drop is the number of digits to be removed from the left of dn;  */
+/*     this must be <= dn->digits (if equal, the coefficient is	      */
+/*     set to 0)						      */
+/*								      */
+/* Returns dn; dn->digits will be <= the initial digits less drop     */
+/* (after removing drop digits there may be leading zero digits	      */
+/* which will also be removed).	 Only dn->lsu and dn->digits change.  */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decNumber *decDecap(decNumber *dn, Int drop) {
+  Unit *msu;				/* -> target cut point */
+  Int cut;				/* work */
+  if (drop>=dn->digits) {		/* losing the whole thing */
+    #if DECCHECK
+    if (drop>dn->digits)
+      printf("decDecap called with drop>digits [%ld>%ld]\n",
+	     (LI)drop, (LI)dn->digits);
+    #endif
+    dn->lsu[0]=0;
+    dn->digits=1;
+    return dn;
+    }
+  msu=dn->lsu+D2U(dn->digits-drop)-1;	/* -> likely msu */
+  cut=MSUDIGITS(dn->digits-drop);	/* digits to be in use in msu */
+  if (cut!=DECDPUN) *msu%=powers[cut];	/* clear left digits */
+  /* that may have left leading zero digits, so do a proper count... */
+  dn->digits=decGetDigits(dn->lsu, msu-dn->lsu+1);
+  return dn;
+  } /* decDecap */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decBiStr -- compare string with pairwise options		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   targ is the string to compare				      */
+/*   str1 is one of the strings to compare against (length may be 0)  */
+/*   str2 is the other; it must be the same length as str1	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   returns 1 if strings compare equal, (that is, it is the same     */
+/*   length as str1 and str2, and each character of targ is in either */
+/*   str1 or str2 in the corresponding position), or 0 otherwise      */
+/*								      */
+/* This is used for generic caseless compare, including the awkward   */
+/* case of the Turkish dotted and dotless Is.  Use as (for example):  */
+/*   if (decBiStr(test, "mike", "MIKE")) ...			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static Flag decBiStr(const char *targ, const char *str1, const char *str2) {
+  for (;;targ++, str1++, str2++) {
+    if (*targ!=*str1 && *targ!=*str2) return 0;
+    /* *targ has a match in one (or both, if terminator) */
+    if (*targ=='\0') break;
+    } /* forever */
+  return 1;
+  } /* decBiStr */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNaNs -- handle NaN operand or operands			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   res     is the result number				      */
+/*   lhs     is the first operand				      */
+/*   rhs     is the second operand, or NULL if none		      */
+/*   context is used to limit payload length			      */
+/*   status  contains the current status			      */
+/*   returns res in case convenient				      */
+/*								      */
+/* Called when one or both operands is a NaN, and propagates the      */
+/* appropriate result to res.  When an sNaN is found, it is changed   */
+/* to a qNaN and Invalid operation is set.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static decNumber * decNaNs(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			   const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set,
+			   uInt *status) {
+  /* This decision tree ends up with LHS being the source pointer, */
+  /* and status updated if need be */
+  if (lhs->bits & DECSNAN)
+    *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation | DEC_sNaN;
+   else if (rhs==NULL);
+   else if (rhs->bits & DECSNAN) {
+    lhs=rhs;
+    *status|=DEC_Invalid_operation | DEC_sNaN;
+    }
+   else if (lhs->bits & DECNAN);
+   else lhs=rhs;
+
+  /* propagate the payload */
+  if (lhs->digits<=set->digits) decNumberCopy(res, lhs); /* easy */
+   else { /* too long */
+    const Unit *ul;
+    Unit *ur, *uresp1;
+    /* copy safe number of units, then decapitate */
+    res->bits=lhs->bits;		/* need sign etc. */
+    uresp1=res->lsu+D2U(set->digits);
+    for (ur=res->lsu, ul=lhs->lsu; ur<uresp1; ur++, ul++) *ur=*ul;
+    res->digits=D2U(set->digits)*DECDPUN;
+    /* maybe still too long */
+    if (res->digits>set->digits) decDecap(res, res->digits-set->digits);
+    }
+
+  res->bits&=~DECSNAN;	      /* convert any sNaN to NaN, while */
+  res->bits|=DECNAN;	      /* .. preserving sign */
+  res->exponent=0;	      /* clean exponent */
+			      /* [coefficient was copied/decapitated] */
+  return res;
+  } /* decNaNs */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decStatus -- apply non-zero status				      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn	    is the number to set if error			      */
+/*   status contains the current status (not yet in context)	      */
+/*   set    is the context					      */
+/*								      */
+/* If the status is an error status, the number is set to a NaN,      */
+/* unless the error was an overflow, divide-by-zero, or underflow,    */
+/* in which case the number will have already been set.		      */
+/*								      */
+/* The context status is then updated with the new status.  Note that */
+/* this may raise a signal, so control may never return from this     */
+/* routine (hence resources must be recovered before it is called).   */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decStatus(decNumber *dn, uInt status, decContext *set) {
+  if (status & DEC_NaNs) {		/* error status -> NaN */
+    /* if cause was an sNaN, clear and propagate [NaN is already set up] */
+    if (status & DEC_sNaN) status&=~DEC_sNaN;
+     else {
+      decNumberZero(dn);		/* other error: clean throughout */
+      dn->bits=DECNAN;			/* and make a quiet NaN */
+      }
+    }
+  decContextSetStatus(set, status);	/* [may not return] */
+  return;
+  } /* decStatus */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decGetDigits -- count digits in a Units array		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   uar is the Unit array holding the number (this is often an	      */
+/*	    accumulator of some sort)				      */
+/*   len is the length of the array in units [>=1]		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   returns the number of (significant) digits in the array	      */
+/*								      */
+/* All leading zeros are excluded, except the last if the array has   */
+/* only zero Units.						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This may be called twice during some operations. */
+static Int decGetDigits(Unit *uar, Int len) {
+  Unit *up=uar+(len-1);		   /* -> msu */
+  Int  digits=(len-1)*DECDPUN+1;   /* possible digits excluding msu */
+  #if DECDPUN>4
+  uInt const *pow;		   /* work */
+  #endif
+				   /* (at least 1 in final msu) */
+  #if DECCHECK
+  if (len<1) printf("decGetDigits called with len<1 [%ld]\n", (LI)len);
+  #endif
+
+  for (; up>=uar; up--) {
+    if (*up==0) {		   /* unit is all 0s */
+      if (digits==1) break;	   /* a zero has one digit */
+      digits-=DECDPUN;		   /* adjust for 0 unit */
+      continue;}
+    /* found the first (most significant) non-zero Unit */
+    #if DECDPUN>1		   /* not done yet */
+    if (*up<10) break;		   /* is 1-9 */
+    digits++;
+    #if DECDPUN>2		   /* not done yet */
+    if (*up<100) break;		   /* is 10-99 */
+    digits++;
+    #if DECDPUN>3		   /* not done yet */
+    if (*up<1000) break;	   /* is 100-999 */
+    digits++;
+    #if DECDPUN>4		   /* count the rest ... */
+    for (pow=&powers[4]; *up>=*pow; pow++) digits++;
+    #endif
+    #endif
+    #endif
+    #endif
+    break;
+    } /* up */
+  return digits;
+  } /* decGetDigits */
+
+#if DECTRACE | DECCHECK
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decNumberShow -- display a number [debug aid]		      */
+/*   dn is the number to show					      */
+/*								      */
+/* Shows: sign, exponent, coefficient (msu first), digits	      */
+/*    or: sign, special-value					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* this is public so other modules can use it */
+void decNumberShow(const decNumber *dn) {
+  const Unit *up;		   /* work */
+  uInt u, d;			   /* .. */
+  Int cut;			   /* .. */
+  char isign='+';		   /* main sign */
+  if (dn==NULL) {
+    printf("NULL\n");
+    return;}
+  if (decNumberIsNegative(dn)) isign='-';
+  printf(" >> %c ", isign);
+  if (dn->bits&DECSPECIAL) {	   /* Is a special value */
+    if (decNumberIsInfinite(dn)) printf("Infinity");
+     else {				     /* a NaN */
+      if (dn->bits&DECSNAN) printf("sNaN");  /* signalling NaN */
+       else printf("NaN");
+      }
+    /* if coefficient and exponent are 0, no more to do */
+    if (dn->exponent==0 && dn->digits==1 && *dn->lsu==0) {
+      printf("\n");
+      return;}
+    /* drop through to report other information */
+    printf(" ");
+    }
+
+  /* now carefully display the coefficient */
+  up=dn->lsu+D2U(dn->digits)-1;		/* msu */
+  printf("%ld", (LI)*up);
+  for (up=up-1; up>=dn->lsu; up--) {
+    u=*up;
+    printf(":");
+    for (cut=DECDPUN-1; cut>=0; cut--) {
+      d=u/powers[cut];
+      u-=d*powers[cut];
+      printf("%ld", (LI)d);
+      } /* cut */
+    } /* up */
+  if (dn->exponent!=0) {
+    char esign='+';
+    if (dn->exponent<0) esign='-';
+    printf(" E%c%ld", esign, (LI)abs(dn->exponent));
+    }
+  printf(" [%ld]\n", (LI)dn->digits);
+  } /* decNumberShow */
+#endif
+
+#if DECTRACE || DECCHECK
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decDumpAr -- display a unit array [debug/check aid]		      */
+/*   name is a single-character tag name			      */
+/*   ar	  is the array to display				      */
+/*   len  is the length of the array in Units			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decDumpAr(char name, const Unit *ar, Int len) {
+  Int i;
+  const char *spec;
+  #if DECDPUN==9
+    spec="%09d ";
+  #elif DECDPUN==8
+    spec="%08d ";
+  #elif DECDPUN==7
+    spec="%07d ";
+  #elif DECDPUN==6
+    spec="%06d ";
+  #elif DECDPUN==5
+    spec="%05d ";
+  #elif DECDPUN==4
+    spec="%04d ";
+  #elif DECDPUN==3
+    spec="%03d ";
+  #elif DECDPUN==2
+    spec="%02d ";
+  #else
+    spec="%d ";
+  #endif
+  printf("  :%c: ", name);
+  for (i=len-1; i>=0; i--) {
+    if (i==len-1) printf("%ld ", (LI)ar[i]);
+     else printf(spec, ar[i]);
+    }
+  printf("\n");
+  return;}
+#endif
+
+#if DECCHECK
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decCheckOperands -- check operand(s) to a routine		      */
+/*   res is the result structure (not checked; it will be set to      */
+/*	    quiet NaN if error found (and it is not NULL))	      */
+/*   lhs is the first operand (may be DECUNRESU)		      */
+/*   rhs is the second (may be DECUNUSED)			      */
+/*   set is the context (may be DECUNCONT)			      */
+/*   returns 0 if both operands, and the context are clean, or 1      */
+/*     otherwise (in which case the context will show an error,	      */
+/*     unless NULL).  Note that res is not cleaned; caller should     */
+/*     handle this so res=NULL case is safe.			      */
+/* The caller is expected to abandon immediately if 1 is returned.    */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static Flag decCheckOperands(decNumber *res, const decNumber *lhs,
+			     const decNumber *rhs, decContext *set) {
+  Flag bad=0;
+  if (set==NULL) {		   /* oops; hopeless */
+    #if DECTRACE || DECVERB
+    printf("Reference to context is NULL.\n");
+    #endif
+    bad=1;
+    return 1;}
+   else if (set!=DECUNCONT
+     && (set->digits<1 || set->round>=DEC_ROUND_MAX)) {
+    bad=1;
+    #if DECTRACE || DECVERB
+    printf("Bad context [digits=%ld round=%ld].\n",
+	   (LI)set->digits, (LI)set->round);
+    #endif
+    }
+   else {
+    if (res==NULL) {
+      bad=1;
+      #if DECTRACE
+      /* this one not DECVERB as standard tests include NULL */
+      printf("Reference to result is NULL.\n");
+      #endif
+      }
+    if (!bad && lhs!=DECUNUSED) bad=(decCheckNumber(lhs));
+    if (!bad && rhs!=DECUNUSED) bad=(decCheckNumber(rhs));
+    }
+  if (bad) {
+    if (set!=DECUNCONT) decContextSetStatus(set, DEC_Invalid_operation);
+    if (res!=DECUNRESU && res!=NULL) {
+      decNumberZero(res);
+      res->bits=DECNAN;	      /* qNaN */
+      }
+    }
+  return bad;
+  } /* decCheckOperands */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decCheckNumber -- check a number				      */
+/*   dn is the number to check					      */
+/*   returns 0 if the number is clean, or 1 otherwise		      */
+/*								      */
+/* The number is considered valid if it could be a result from some   */
+/* operation in some valid context.				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static Flag decCheckNumber(const decNumber *dn) {
+  const Unit *up;	      /* work */
+  uInt maxuint;		      /* .. */
+  Int ae, d, digits;	      /* .. */
+  Int emin, emax;	      /* .. */
+
+  if (dn==NULL) {	      /* hopeless */
+    #if DECTRACE
+    /* this one not DECVERB as standard tests include NULL */
+    printf("Reference to decNumber is NULL.\n");
+    #endif
+    return 1;}
+
+  /* check special values */
+  if (dn->bits & DECSPECIAL) {
+    if (dn->exponent!=0) {
+      #if DECTRACE || DECVERB
+      printf("Exponent %ld (not 0) for a special value [%02x].\n",
+	     (LI)dn->exponent, dn->bits);
+      #endif
+      return 1;}
+
+    /* 2003.09.08: NaNs may now have coefficients, so next tests Inf only */
+    if (decNumberIsInfinite(dn)) {
+      if (dn->digits!=1) {
+	#if DECTRACE || DECVERB
+	printf("Digits %ld (not 1) for an infinity.\n", (LI)dn->digits);
+	#endif
+	return 1;}
+      if (*dn->lsu!=0) {
+	#if DECTRACE || DECVERB
+	printf("LSU %ld (not 0) for an infinity.\n", (LI)*dn->lsu);
+	#endif
+	decDumpAr('I', dn->lsu, D2U(dn->digits));
+	return 1;}
+      } /* Inf */
+    /* 2002.12.26: negative NaNs can now appear through proposed IEEE */
+    /*		   concrete formats (decimal64, etc.). */
+    return 0;
+    }
+
+  /* check the coefficient */
+  if (dn->digits<1 || dn->digits>DECNUMMAXP) {
+    #if DECTRACE || DECVERB
+    printf("Digits %ld in number.\n", (LI)dn->digits);
+    #endif
+    return 1;}
+
+  d=dn->digits;
+
+  for (up=dn->lsu; d>0; up++) {
+    if (d>DECDPUN) maxuint=DECDPUNMAX;
+     else {		      /* reached the msu */
+      maxuint=powers[d]-1;
+      if (dn->digits>1 && *up<powers[d-1]) {
+	#if DECTRACE || DECVERB
+	printf("Leading 0 in number.\n");
+	decNumberShow(dn);
+	#endif
+	return 1;}
+      }
+    if (*up>maxuint) {
+      #if DECTRACE || DECVERB
+      printf("Bad Unit [%08lx] in %ld-digit number at offset %ld [maxuint %ld].\n",
+	      (LI)*up, (LI)dn->digits, (LI)(up-dn->lsu), (LI)maxuint);
+      #endif
+      return 1;}
+    d-=DECDPUN;
+    }
+
+  /* check the exponent.  Note that input operands can have exponents */
+  /* which are out of the set->emin/set->emax and set->digits range */
+  /* (just as they can have more digits than set->digits). */
+  ae=dn->exponent+dn->digits-1;	   /* adjusted exponent */
+  emax=DECNUMMAXE;
+  emin=DECNUMMINE;
+  digits=DECNUMMAXP;
+  if (ae<emin-(digits-1)) {
+    #if DECTRACE || DECVERB
+    printf("Adjusted exponent underflow [%ld].\n", (LI)ae);
+    decNumberShow(dn);
+    #endif
+    return 1;}
+  if (ae>+emax) {
+    #if DECTRACE || DECVERB
+    printf("Adjusted exponent overflow [%ld].\n", (LI)ae);
+    decNumberShow(dn);
+    #endif
+    return 1;}
+
+  return 0;		 /* it's OK */
+  } /* decCheckNumber */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decCheckInexact -- check a normal finite inexact result has digits */
+/*   dn is the number to check					      */
+/*   set is the context (for status and precision)		      */
+/*   sets Invalid operation, etc., if some digits are missing	      */
+/* [this check is not made for DECSUBSET compilation or when	      */
+/* subnormal is not set]					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decCheckInexact(const decNumber *dn, decContext *set) {
+  #if !DECSUBSET && DECEXTFLAG
+    if ((set->status & (DEC_Inexact|DEC_Subnormal))==DEC_Inexact
+     && (set->digits!=dn->digits) && !(dn->bits & DECSPECIAL)) {
+      #if DECTRACE || DECVERB
+      printf("Insufficient digits [%ld] on normal Inexact result.\n",
+	     (LI)dn->digits);
+      decNumberShow(dn);
+      #endif
+      decContextSetStatus(set, DEC_Invalid_operation);
+      }
+  #else
+    /* next is a noop for quiet compiler */
+    if (dn!=NULL && dn->digits==0) set->status|=DEC_Invalid_operation;
+  #endif
+  return;
+  } /* decCheckInexact */
+#endif
+
+#if DECALLOC
+#undef malloc
+#undef free
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decMalloc -- accountable allocation routine			      */
+/*   n is the number of bytes to allocate			      */
+/*								      */
+/* Semantics is the same as the stdlib malloc routine, but bytes      */
+/* allocated are accounted for globally, and corruption fences are    */
+/* added before and after the 'actual' storage.			      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This routine allocates storage with an extra twelve bytes; 8 are   */
+/* at the start and hold:					      */
+/*   0-3 the original length requested				      */
+/*   4-7 buffer corruption detection fence (DECFENCE, x4)	      */
+/* The 4 bytes at the end also hold a corruption fence (DECFENCE, x4) */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void *decMalloc(size_t n) {
+  uInt	size=n+12;		   /* true size */
+  void	*alloc;			   /* -> allocated storage */
+  uInt	*j;			   /* work */
+  uByte *b, *b0;		   /* .. */
+
+  alloc=malloc(size);		   /* -> allocated storage */
+  if (alloc==NULL) return NULL;	   /* out of strorage */
+  b0=(uByte *)alloc;		   /* as bytes */
+  decAllocBytes+=n;		   /* account for storage */
+  j=(uInt *)alloc;		   /* -> first four bytes */
+  *j=n;				   /* save n */
+  /* printf(" alloc ++ dAB: %ld (%d)\n", decAllocBytes, n); */
+  for (b=b0+4; b<b0+8; b++) *b=DECFENCE;
+  for (b=b0+n+8; b<b0+n+12; b++) *b=DECFENCE;
+  return b0+8;			   /* -> play area */
+  } /* decMalloc */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decFree -- accountable free routine				      */
+/*   alloc is the storage to free				      */
+/*								      */
+/* Semantics is the same as the stdlib malloc routine, except that    */
+/* the global storage accounting is updated and the fences are	      */
+/* checked to ensure that no routine has written 'out of bounds'.     */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This routine first checks that the fences have not been corrupted. */
+/* It then frees the storage using the 'truw' storage address (that   */
+/* is, offset by 8).						      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+static void decFree(void *alloc) {
+  uInt	*j, n;			   /* pointer, original length */
+  uByte *b, *b0;		   /* work */
+
+  if (alloc==NULL) return;	   /* allowed; it's a nop */
+  b0=(uByte *)alloc;		   /* as bytes */
+  b0-=8;			   /* -> true start of storage */
+  j=(uInt *)b0;			   /* -> first four bytes */
+  n=*j;				   /* lift */
+  for (b=b0+4; b<b0+8; b++) if (*b!=DECFENCE)
+    printf("=== Corrupt byte [%02x] at offset %d from %ld ===\n", *b,
+	   b-b0-8, (Int)b0);
+  for (b=b0+n+8; b<b0+n+12; b++) if (*b!=DECFENCE)
+    printf("=== Corrupt byte [%02x] at offset +%d from %ld, n=%ld ===\n", *b,
+	   b-b0-8, (Int)b0, n);
+  free(b0);			   /* drop the storage */
+  decAllocBytes-=n;		   /* account for storage */
+  /* printf(" free -- dAB: %d (%d)\n", decAllocBytes, -n); */
+  } /* decFree */
+#define malloc(a) decMalloc(a)
+#define free(a) decFree(a)
+#endif
diff --git a/libdecnumber/dpd/decimal128.c b/libdecnumber/dpd/decimal128.c
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7551b7ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libdecnumber/dpd/decimal128.c
@@ -0,0 +1,564 @@
+/* Decimal 128-bit format module for the decNumber C Library.
+   Copyright (C) 2005, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+   Contributed by IBM Corporation.  Author Mike Cowlishaw.
+
+   This file is part of GCC.
+
+   GCC is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under
+   the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free
+   Software Foundation; either version 2, or (at your option) any later
+   version.
+
+   In addition to the permissions in the GNU General Public License,
+   the Free Software Foundation gives you unlimited permission to link
+   the compiled version of this file into combinations with other
+   programs, and to distribute those combinations without any
+   restriction coming from the use of this file.  (The General Public
+   License restrictions do apply in other respects; for example, they
+   cover modification of the file, and distribution when not linked
+   into a combine executable.)
+
+   GCC is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY
+   WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or
+   FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU General Public License
+   for more details.
+
+   You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+   along with GCC; see the file COPYING.  If not, write to the Free
+   Software Foundation, 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA
+   02110-1301, USA.  */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Decimal 128-bit format module				      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This module comprises the routines for decimal128 format numbers.  */
+/* Conversions are supplied to and from decNumber and String.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* This is used when decNumber provides operations, either for all    */
+/* operations or as a proxy between decNumber and decSingle.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* Error handling is the same as decNumber (qv.).		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+#include <string.h>	      /* [for memset/memcpy] */
+#include <stdio.h>	      /* [for printf] */
+
+#include "libdecnumber/dconfig.h"
+#define	 DECNUMDIGITS 34      /* make decNumbers with space for 34 */
+#include "libdecnumber/decNumber.h"
+#include "libdecnumber/decNumberLocal.h"
+#include "libdecnumber/dpd/decimal128.h"
+
+/* Utility routines and tables [in decimal64.c] */
+extern const uInt   COMBEXP[32], COMBMSD[32];
+extern const uByte  BIN2CHAR[4001];
+
+extern void decDigitsFromDPD(decNumber *, const uInt *, Int);
+extern void decDigitsToDPD(const decNumber *, uInt *, Int);
+
+#if DECTRACE || DECCHECK
+void decimal128Show(const decimal128 *);	  /* for debug */
+extern void decNumberShow(const decNumber *);	  /* .. */
+#endif
+
+/* Useful macro */
+/* Clear a structure (e.g., a decNumber) */
+#define DEC_clear(d) memset(d, 0, sizeof(*d))
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal128FromNumber -- convert decNumber to decimal128	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   ds is the target decimal128				      */
+/*   dn is the source number (assumed valid)			      */
+/*   set is the context, used only for reporting errors		      */
+/*								      */
+/* The set argument is used only for status reporting and for the     */
+/* rounding mode (used if the coefficient is more than DECIMAL128_Pmax*/
+/* digits or an overflow is detected).	If the exponent is out of the */
+/* valid range then Overflow or Underflow will be raised.	      */
+/* After Underflow a subnormal result is possible.		      */
+/*								      */
+/* DEC_Clamped is set if the number has to be 'folded down' to fit,   */
+/* by reducing its exponent and multiplying the coefficient by a      */
+/* power of ten, or if the exponent on a zero had to be clamped.      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decimal128 * decimal128FromNumber(decimal128 *d128, const decNumber *dn,
+				  decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;		   /* status accumulator */
+  Int ae;			   /* adjusted exponent */
+  decNumber  dw;		   /* work */
+  decContext dc;		   /* .. */
+  uInt *pu;			   /* .. */
+  uInt comb, exp;		   /* .. */
+  uInt targar[4]={0,0,0,0};	   /* target 128-bit */
+  #define targhi targar[3]	   /* name the word with the sign */
+  #define targmh targar[2]	   /* name the words */
+  #define targml targar[1]	   /* .. */
+  #define targlo targar[0]	   /* .. */
+
+  /* If the number has too many digits, or the exponent could be */
+  /* out of range then reduce the number under the appropriate */
+  /* constraints.  This could push the number to Infinity or zero, */
+  /* so this check and rounding must be done before generating the */
+  /* decimal128] */
+  ae=dn->exponent+dn->digits-1;		     /* [0 if special] */
+  if (dn->digits>DECIMAL128_Pmax	     /* too many digits */
+   || ae>DECIMAL128_Emax		     /* likely overflow */
+   || ae<DECIMAL128_Emin) {		     /* likely underflow */
+    decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL128); /* [no traps] */
+    dc.round=set->round;		     /* use supplied rounding */
+    decNumberPlus(&dw, dn, &dc);	     /* (round and check) */
+    /* [this changes -0 to 0, so enforce the sign...] */
+    dw.bits|=dn->bits&DECNEG;
+    status=dc.status;			     /* save status */
+    dn=&dw;				     /* use the work number */
+    } /* maybe out of range */
+
+  if (dn->bits&DECSPECIAL) {			  /* a special value */
+    if (dn->bits&DECINF) targhi=DECIMAL_Inf<<24;
+     else {					  /* sNaN or qNaN */
+      if ((*dn->lsu!=0 || dn->digits>1)		  /* non-zero coefficient */
+       && (dn->digits<DECIMAL128_Pmax)) {	  /* coefficient fits */
+	decDigitsToDPD(dn, targar, 0);
+	}
+      if (dn->bits&DECNAN) targhi|=DECIMAL_NaN<<24;
+       else targhi|=DECIMAL_sNaN<<24;
+      } /* a NaN */
+    } /* special */
+
+   else { /* is finite */
+    if (decNumberIsZero(dn)) {		     /* is a zero */
+      /* set and clamp exponent */
+      if (dn->exponent<-DECIMAL128_Bias) {
+	exp=0;				     /* low clamp */
+	status|=DEC_Clamped;
+	}
+       else {
+	exp=dn->exponent+DECIMAL128_Bias;    /* bias exponent */
+	if (exp>DECIMAL128_Ehigh) {	     /* top clamp */
+	  exp=DECIMAL128_Ehigh;
+	  status|=DEC_Clamped;
+	  }
+	}
+      comb=(exp>>9) & 0x18;		/* msd=0, exp top 2 bits .. */
+      }
+     else {				/* non-zero finite number */
+      uInt msd;				/* work */
+      Int pad=0;			/* coefficient pad digits */
+
+      /* the dn is known to fit, but it may need to be padded */
+      exp=(uInt)(dn->exponent+DECIMAL128_Bias);	   /* bias exponent */
+      if (exp>DECIMAL128_Ehigh) {		   /* fold-down case */
+	pad=exp-DECIMAL128_Ehigh;
+	exp=DECIMAL128_Ehigh;			   /* [to maximum] */
+	status|=DEC_Clamped;
+	}
+
+      /* [fastpath for common case is not a win, here] */
+      decDigitsToDPD(dn, targar, pad);
+      /* save and clear the top digit */
+      msd=targhi>>14;
+      targhi&=0x00003fff;
+
+      /* create the combination field */
+      if (msd>=8) comb=0x18 | ((exp>>11) & 0x06) | (msd & 0x01);
+	     else comb=((exp>>9) & 0x18) | msd;
+      }
+    targhi|=comb<<26;		   /* add combination field .. */
+    targhi|=(exp&0xfff)<<14;	   /* .. and exponent continuation */
+    } /* finite */
+
+  if (dn->bits&DECNEG) targhi|=0x80000000; /* add sign bit */
+
+  /* now write to storage; this is endian */
+  pu=(uInt *)d128->bytes;	   /* overlay */
+  if (DECLITEND) {
+    pu[0]=targlo;		   /* directly store the low int */
+    pu[1]=targml;		   /* then the mid-low */
+    pu[2]=targmh;		   /* then the mid-high */
+    pu[3]=targhi;		   /* then the high int */
+    }
+   else {
+    pu[0]=targhi;		   /* directly store the high int */
+    pu[1]=targmh;		   /* then the mid-high */
+    pu[2]=targml;		   /* then the mid-low */
+    pu[3]=targlo;		   /* then the low int */
+    }
+
+  if (status!=0) decContextSetStatus(set, status); /* pass on status */
+  /* decimal128Show(d128); */
+  return d128;
+  } /* decimal128FromNumber */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal128ToNumber -- convert decimal128 to decNumber	      */
+/*   d128 is the source decimal128				      */
+/*   dn is the target number, with appropriate space		      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decimal128ToNumber(const decimal128 *d128, decNumber *dn) {
+  uInt msd;			   /* coefficient MSD */
+  uInt exp;			   /* exponent top two bits */
+  uInt comb;			   /* combination field */
+  const uInt *pu;		   /* work */
+  Int  need;			   /* .. */
+  uInt sourar[4];		   /* source 128-bit */
+  #define sourhi sourar[3]	   /* name the word with the sign */
+  #define sourmh sourar[2]	   /* and the mid-high word */
+  #define sourml sourar[1]	   /* and the mod-low word */
+  #define sourlo sourar[0]	   /* and the lowest word */
+
+  /* load source from storage; this is endian */
+  pu=(const uInt *)d128->bytes;	   /* overlay */
+  if (DECLITEND) {
+    sourlo=pu[0];		   /* directly load the low int */
+    sourml=pu[1];		   /* then the mid-low */
+    sourmh=pu[2];		   /* then the mid-high */
+    sourhi=pu[3];		   /* then the high int */
+    }
+   else {
+    sourhi=pu[0];		   /* directly load the high int */
+    sourmh=pu[1];		   /* then the mid-high */
+    sourml=pu[2];		   /* then the mid-low */
+    sourlo=pu[3];		   /* then the low int */
+    }
+
+  comb=(sourhi>>26)&0x1f;	   /* combination field */
+
+  decNumberZero(dn);		   /* clean number */
+  if (sourhi&0x80000000) dn->bits=DECNEG; /* set sign if negative */
+
+  msd=COMBMSD[comb];		   /* decode the combination field */
+  exp=COMBEXP[comb];		   /* .. */
+
+  if (exp==3) {			   /* is a special */
+    if (msd==0) {
+      dn->bits|=DECINF;
+      return dn;		   /* no coefficient needed */
+      }
+    else if (sourhi&0x02000000) dn->bits|=DECSNAN;
+    else dn->bits|=DECNAN;
+    msd=0;			   /* no top digit */
+    }
+   else {			   /* is a finite number */
+    dn->exponent=(exp<<12)+((sourhi>>14)&0xfff)-DECIMAL128_Bias; /* unbiased */
+    }
+
+  /* get the coefficient */
+  sourhi&=0x00003fff;		   /* clean coefficient continuation */
+  if (msd) {			   /* non-zero msd */
+    sourhi|=msd<<14;		   /* prefix to coefficient */
+    need=12;			   /* process 12 declets */
+    }
+   else { /* msd=0 */
+    if (sourhi) need=11;	   /* declets to process */
+     else if (sourmh) need=10;
+     else if (sourml) need=7;
+     else if (sourlo) need=4;
+     else return dn;		   /* easy: coefficient is 0 */
+    } /*msd=0 */
+
+  decDigitsFromDPD(dn, sourar, need);	/* process declets */
+  /* decNumberShow(dn); */
+  return dn;
+  } /* decimal128ToNumber */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* to-scientific-string -- conversion to numeric string		      */
+/* to-engineering-string -- conversion to numeric string	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   decimal128ToString(d128, string);				      */
+/*   decimal128ToEngString(d128, string);			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  d128 is the decimal128 format number to convert		      */
+/*  string is the string where the result will be laid out	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  string must be at least 24 characters			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  No error is possible, and no status can be set.		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+char * decimal128ToEngString(const decimal128 *d128, char *string){
+  decNumber dn;				/* work */
+  decimal128ToNumber(d128, &dn);
+  decNumberToEngString(&dn, string);
+  return string;
+  } /* decimal128ToEngString */
+
+char * decimal128ToString(const decimal128 *d128, char *string){
+  uInt msd;			   /* coefficient MSD */
+  Int  exp;			   /* exponent top two bits or full */
+  uInt comb;			   /* combination field */
+  char *cstart;			   /* coefficient start */
+  char *c;			   /* output pointer in string */
+  const uInt *pu;		   /* work */
+  char *s, *t;			   /* .. (source, target) */
+  Int  dpd;			   /* .. */
+  Int  pre, e;			   /* .. */
+  const uByte *u;		   /* .. */
+
+  uInt sourar[4];		   /* source 128-bit */
+  #define sourhi sourar[3]	   /* name the word with the sign */
+  #define sourmh sourar[2]	   /* and the mid-high word */
+  #define sourml sourar[1]	   /* and the mod-low word */
+  #define sourlo sourar[0]	   /* and the lowest word */
+
+  /* load source from storage; this is endian */
+  pu=(const uInt *)d128->bytes;	   /* overlay */
+  if (DECLITEND) {
+    sourlo=pu[0];		   /* directly load the low int */
+    sourml=pu[1];		   /* then the mid-low */
+    sourmh=pu[2];		   /* then the mid-high */
+    sourhi=pu[3];		   /* then the high int */
+    }
+   else {
+    sourhi=pu[0];		   /* directly load the high int */
+    sourmh=pu[1];		   /* then the mid-high */
+    sourml=pu[2];		   /* then the mid-low */
+    sourlo=pu[3];		   /* then the low int */
+    }
+
+  c=string;			   /* where result will go */
+  if (((Int)sourhi)<0) *c++='-';   /* handle sign */
+
+  comb=(sourhi>>26)&0x1f;	   /* combination field */
+  msd=COMBMSD[comb];		   /* decode the combination field */
+  exp=COMBEXP[comb];		   /* .. */
+
+  if (exp==3) {
+    if (msd==0) {		   /* infinity */
+      strcpy(c,	  "Inf");
+      strcpy(c+3, "inity");
+      return string;		   /* easy */
+      }
+    if (sourhi&0x02000000) *c++='s'; /* sNaN */
+    strcpy(c, "NaN");		   /* complete word */
+    c+=3;			   /* step past */
+    if (sourlo==0 && sourml==0 && sourmh==0
+     && (sourhi&0x0003ffff)==0) return string; /* zero payload */
+    /* otherwise drop through to add integer; set correct exp */
+    exp=0; msd=0;		   /* setup for following code */
+    }
+   else exp=(exp<<12)+((sourhi>>14)&0xfff)-DECIMAL128_Bias; /* unbiased */
+
+  /* convert 34 digits of significand to characters */
+  cstart=c;			   /* save start of coefficient */
+  if (msd) *c++='0'+(char)msd;	   /* non-zero most significant digit */
+
+  /* Now decode the declets.  After extracting each one, it is */
+  /* decoded to binary and then to a 4-char sequence by table lookup; */
+  /* the 4-chars are a 1-char length (significant digits, except 000 */
+  /* has length 0).  This allows us to left-align the first declet */
+  /* with non-zero content, then remaining ones are full 3-char */
+  /* length.  We use fixed-length memcpys because variable-length */
+  /* causes a subroutine call in GCC.  (These are length 4 for speed */
+  /* and are safe because the array has an extra terminator byte.) */
+  #define dpd2char u=&BIN2CHAR[DPD2BIN[dpd]*4];			  \
+		   if (c!=cstart) {memcpy(c, u+1, 4); c+=3;}	  \
+		    else if (*u)  {memcpy(c, u+4-*u, 4); c+=*u;}
+  dpd=(sourhi>>4)&0x3ff;		     /* declet 1 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=((sourhi&0xf)<<6) | (sourmh>>26);	     /* declet 2 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=(sourmh>>16)&0x3ff;		     /* declet 3 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=(sourmh>>6)&0x3ff;		     /* declet 4 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=((sourmh&0x3f)<<4) | (sourml>>28);     /* declet 5 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=(sourml>>18)&0x3ff;		     /* declet 6 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=(sourml>>8)&0x3ff;		     /* declet 7 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=((sourml&0xff)<<2) | (sourlo>>30);     /* declet 8 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=(sourlo>>20)&0x3ff;		     /* declet 9 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=(sourlo>>10)&0x3ff;		     /* declet 10 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=(sourlo)&0x3ff;			     /* declet 11 */
+  dpd2char;
+
+  if (c==cstart) *c++='0';	   /* all zeros -- make 0 */
+
+  if (exp==0) {			   /* integer or NaN case -- easy */
+    *c='\0';			   /* terminate */
+    return string;
+    }
+
+  /* non-0 exponent */
+  e=0;				   /* assume no E */
+  pre=c-cstart+exp;
+  /* [here, pre-exp is the digits count (==1 for zero)] */
+  if (exp>0 || pre<-5) {	   /* need exponential form */
+    e=pre-1;			   /* calculate E value */
+    pre=1;			   /* assume one digit before '.' */
+    } /* exponential form */
+
+  /* modify the coefficient, adding 0s, '.', and E+nn as needed */
+  s=c-1;			   /* source (LSD) */
+  if (pre>0) {			   /* ddd.ddd (plain), perhaps with E */
+    char *dotat=cstart+pre;
+    if (dotat<c) {		   /* if embedded dot needed... */
+      t=c;				/* target */
+      for (; s>=dotat; s--, t--) *t=*s; /* open the gap; leave t at gap */
+      *t='.';				/* insert the dot */
+      c++;				/* length increased by one */
+      }
+
+    /* finally add the E-part, if needed; it will never be 0, and has */
+    /* a maximum length of 4 digits */
+    if (e!=0) {
+      *c++='E';			   /* starts with E */
+      *c++='+';			   /* assume positive */
+      if (e<0) {
+	*(c-1)='-';		   /* oops, need '-' */
+	e=-e;			   /* uInt, please */
+	}
+      if (e<1000) {		   /* 3 (or fewer) digits case */
+	u=&BIN2CHAR[e*4];	   /* -> length byte */
+	memcpy(c, u+4-*u, 4);	   /* copy fixed 4 characters [is safe] */
+	c+=*u;			   /* bump pointer appropriately */
+	}
+       else {			   /* 4-digits */
+	Int thou=((e>>3)*1049)>>17; /* e/1000 */
+	Int rem=e-(1000*thou);	    /* e%1000 */
+	*c++='0'+(char)thou;
+	u=&BIN2CHAR[rem*4];	   /* -> length byte */
+	memcpy(c, u+1, 4);	   /* copy fixed 3+1 characters [is safe] */
+	c+=3;			   /* bump pointer, always 3 digits */
+	}
+      }
+    *c='\0';			   /* add terminator */
+    /*printf("res %s\n", string); */
+    return string;
+    } /* pre>0 */
+
+  /* -5<=pre<=0: here for plain 0.ddd or 0.000ddd forms (can never have E) */
+  t=c+1-pre;
+  *(t+1)='\0';				/* can add terminator now */
+  for (; s>=cstart; s--, t--) *t=*s;	/* shift whole coefficient right */
+  c=cstart;
+  *c++='0';				/* always starts with 0. */
+  *c++='.';
+  for (; pre<0; pre++) *c++='0';	/* add any 0's after '.' */
+  /*printf("res %s\n", string); */
+  return string;
+  } /* decimal128ToString */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* to-number -- conversion from numeric string			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   decimal128FromString(result, string, set);			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  result  is the decimal128 format number which gets the result of  */
+/*	    the conversion					      */
+/*  *string is the character string which should contain a valid      */
+/*	    number (which may be a special value)		      */
+/*  set	    is the context					      */
+/*								      */
+/* The context is supplied to this routine is used for error handling */
+/* (setting of status and traps) and for the rounding mode, only.     */
+/* If an error occurs, the result will be a valid decimal128 NaN.     */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decimal128 * decimal128FromString(decimal128 *result, const char *string,
+				  decContext *set) {
+  decContext dc;			     /* work */
+  decNumber dn;				     /* .. */
+
+  decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL128); /* no traps, please */
+  dc.round=set->round;			       /* use supplied rounding */
+
+  decNumberFromString(&dn, string, &dc);     /* will round if needed */
+  decimal128FromNumber(result, &dn, &dc);
+  if (dc.status!=0) {			     /* something happened */
+    decContextSetStatus(set, dc.status);     /* .. pass it on */
+    }
+  return result;
+  } /* decimal128FromString */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal128IsCanonical -- test whether encoding is canonical	      */
+/*   d128 is the source decimal128				      */
+/*   returns 1 if the encoding of d128 is canonical, 0 otherwise      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uint32_t decimal128IsCanonical(const decimal128 *d128) {
+  decNumber dn;				/* work */
+  decimal128 canon;			 /* .. */
+  decContext dc;			/* .. */
+  decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL128);
+  decimal128ToNumber(d128, &dn);
+  decimal128FromNumber(&canon, &dn, &dc);/* canon will now be canonical */
+  return memcmp(d128, &canon, DECIMAL128_Bytes)==0;
+  } /* decimal128IsCanonical */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal128Canonical -- copy an encoding, ensuring it is canonical  */
+/*   d128 is the source decimal128				      */
+/*   result is the target (may be the same decimal128)		      */
+/*   returns result						      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decimal128 * decimal128Canonical(decimal128 *result, const decimal128 *d128) {
+  decNumber dn;				/* work */
+  decContext dc;			/* .. */
+  decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL128);
+  decimal128ToNumber(d128, &dn);
+  decimal128FromNumber(result, &dn, &dc);/* result will now be canonical */
+  return result;
+  } /* decimal128Canonical */
+
+#if DECTRACE || DECCHECK
+/* Macros for accessing decimal128 fields.  These assume the argument
+   is a reference (pointer) to the decimal128 structure, and the
+   decimal128 is in network byte order (big-endian) */
+/* Get sign */
+#define decimal128Sign(d)	((unsigned)(d)->bytes[0]>>7)
+
+/* Get combination field */
+#define decimal128Comb(d)	(((d)->bytes[0] & 0x7c)>>2)
+
+/* Get exponent continuation [does not remove bias] */
+#define decimal128ExpCon(d)	((((d)->bytes[0] & 0x03)<<10)	      \
+			      | ((unsigned)(d)->bytes[1]<<2)	      \
+			      | ((unsigned)(d)->bytes[2]>>6))
+
+/* Set sign [this assumes sign previously 0] */
+#define decimal128SetSign(d, b) {				      \
+  (d)->bytes[0]|=((unsigned)(b)<<7);}
+
+/* Set exponent continuation [does not apply bias] */
+/* This assumes range has been checked and exponent previously 0; */
+/* type of exponent must be unsigned */
+#define decimal128SetExpCon(d, e) {				      \
+  (d)->bytes[0]|=(uint8_t)((e)>>10);				      \
+  (d)->bytes[1] =(uint8_t)(((e)&0x3fc)>>2);			      \
+  (d)->bytes[2]|=(uint8_t)(((e)&0x03)<<6);}
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal128Show -- display a decimal128 in hexadecimal [debug aid]  */
+/*   d128 -- the number to show					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Also shows sign/cob/expconfields extracted */
+void decimal128Show(const decimal128 *d128) {
+  char buf[DECIMAL128_Bytes*2+1];
+  Int i, j=0;
+
+  if (DECLITEND) {
+    for (i=0; i<DECIMAL128_Bytes; i++, j+=2) {
+      sprintf(&buf[j], "%02x", d128->bytes[15-i]);
+      }
+    printf(" D128> %s [S:%d Cb:%02x Ec:%02x] LittleEndian\n", buf,
+	   d128->bytes[15]>>7, (d128->bytes[15]>>2)&0x1f,
+	   ((d128->bytes[15]&0x3)<<10)|(d128->bytes[14]<<2)|
+	   (d128->bytes[13]>>6));
+    }
+   else {
+    for (i=0; i<DECIMAL128_Bytes; i++, j+=2) {
+      sprintf(&buf[j], "%02x", d128->bytes[i]);
+      }
+    printf(" D128> %s [S:%d Cb:%02x Ec:%02x] BigEndian\n", buf,
+	   decimal128Sign(d128), decimal128Comb(d128),
+	   decimal128ExpCon(d128));
+    }
+  } /* decimal128Show */
+#endif
diff --git a/libdecnumber/dpd/decimal32.c b/libdecnumber/dpd/decimal32.c
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..095ab756
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libdecnumber/dpd/decimal32.c
@@ -0,0 +1,489 @@
+/* Decimal 32-bit format module for the decNumber C Library.
+   Copyright (C) 2005, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+   Contributed by IBM Corporation.  Author Mike Cowlishaw.
+
+   This file is part of GCC.
+
+   GCC is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under
+   the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free
+   Software Foundation; either version 2, or (at your option) any later
+   version.
+
+   In addition to the permissions in the GNU General Public License,
+   the Free Software Foundation gives you unlimited permission to link
+   the compiled version of this file into combinations with other
+   programs, and to distribute those combinations without any
+   restriction coming from the use of this file.  (The General Public
+   License restrictions do apply in other respects; for example, they
+   cover modification of the file, and distribution when not linked
+   into a combine executable.)
+
+   GCC is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY
+   WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or
+   FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU General Public License
+   for more details.
+
+   You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+   along with GCC; see the file COPYING.  If not, write to the Free
+   Software Foundation, 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA
+   02110-1301, USA.  */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Decimal 32-bit format module					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This module comprises the routines for decimal32 format numbers.   */
+/* Conversions are supplied to and from decNumber and String.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* This is used when decNumber provides operations, either for all    */
+/* operations or as a proxy between decNumber and decSingle.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* Error handling is the same as decNumber (qv.).		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+#include <string.h>	      /* [for memset/memcpy] */
+#include <stdio.h>	      /* [for printf] */
+
+#include "libdecnumber/dconfig.h"
+#define	 DECNUMDIGITS  7      /* make decNumbers with space for 7 */
+#include "libdecnumber/decNumber.h"
+#include "libdecnumber/decNumberLocal.h"
+#include "libdecnumber/dpd/decimal32.h"
+
+/* Utility tables and routines [in decimal64.c] */
+extern const uInt   COMBEXP[32], COMBMSD[32];
+extern const uByte  BIN2CHAR[4001];
+
+extern void decDigitsToDPD(const decNumber *, uInt *, Int);
+extern void decDigitsFromDPD(decNumber *, const uInt *, Int);
+
+#if DECTRACE || DECCHECK
+void decimal32Show(const decimal32 *);		  /* for debug */
+extern void decNumberShow(const decNumber *);	  /* .. */
+#endif
+
+/* Useful macro */
+/* Clear a structure (e.g., a decNumber) */
+#define DEC_clear(d) memset(d, 0, sizeof(*d))
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal32FromNumber -- convert decNumber to decimal32	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   ds is the target decimal32					      */
+/*   dn is the source number (assumed valid)			      */
+/*   set is the context, used only for reporting errors		      */
+/*								      */
+/* The set argument is used only for status reporting and for the     */
+/* rounding mode (used if the coefficient is more than DECIMAL32_Pmax */
+/* digits or an overflow is detected).	If the exponent is out of the */
+/* valid range then Overflow or Underflow will be raised.	      */
+/* After Underflow a subnormal result is possible.		      */
+/*								      */
+/* DEC_Clamped is set if the number has to be 'folded down' to fit,   */
+/* by reducing its exponent and multiplying the coefficient by a      */
+/* power of ten, or if the exponent on a zero had to be clamped.      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decimal32 * decimal32FromNumber(decimal32 *d32, const decNumber *dn,
+			      decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;		   /* status accumulator */
+  Int ae;			   /* adjusted exponent */
+  decNumber  dw;		   /* work */
+  decContext dc;		   /* .. */
+  uInt *pu;			   /* .. */
+  uInt comb, exp;		   /* .. */
+  uInt targ=0;			   /* target 32-bit */
+
+  /* If the number has too many digits, or the exponent could be */
+  /* out of range then reduce the number under the appropriate */
+  /* constraints.  This could push the number to Infinity or zero, */
+  /* so this check and rounding must be done before generating the */
+  /* decimal32] */
+  ae=dn->exponent+dn->digits-1;		     /* [0 if special] */
+  if (dn->digits>DECIMAL32_Pmax		     /* too many digits */
+   || ae>DECIMAL32_Emax			     /* likely overflow */
+   || ae<DECIMAL32_Emin) {		     /* likely underflow */
+    decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL32); /* [no traps] */
+    dc.round=set->round;		     /* use supplied rounding */
+    decNumberPlus(&dw, dn, &dc);	     /* (round and check) */
+    /* [this changes -0 to 0, so enforce the sign...] */
+    dw.bits|=dn->bits&DECNEG;
+    status=dc.status;			     /* save status */
+    dn=&dw;				     /* use the work number */
+    } /* maybe out of range */
+
+  if (dn->bits&DECSPECIAL) {			  /* a special value */
+    if (dn->bits&DECINF) targ=DECIMAL_Inf<<24;
+     else {					  /* sNaN or qNaN */
+      if ((*dn->lsu!=0 || dn->digits>1)		  /* non-zero coefficient */
+       && (dn->digits<DECIMAL32_Pmax)) {	  /* coefficient fits */
+	decDigitsToDPD(dn, &targ, 0);
+	}
+      if (dn->bits&DECNAN) targ|=DECIMAL_NaN<<24;
+       else targ|=DECIMAL_sNaN<<24;
+      } /* a NaN */
+    } /* special */
+
+   else { /* is finite */
+    if (decNumberIsZero(dn)) {		     /* is a zero */
+      /* set and clamp exponent */
+      if (dn->exponent<-DECIMAL32_Bias) {
+	exp=0;				     /* low clamp */
+	status|=DEC_Clamped;
+	}
+       else {
+	exp=dn->exponent+DECIMAL32_Bias;     /* bias exponent */
+	if (exp>DECIMAL32_Ehigh) {	     /* top clamp */
+	  exp=DECIMAL32_Ehigh;
+	  status|=DEC_Clamped;
+	  }
+	}
+      comb=(exp>>3) & 0x18;		/* msd=0, exp top 2 bits .. */
+      }
+     else {				/* non-zero finite number */
+      uInt msd;				/* work */
+      Int pad=0;			/* coefficient pad digits */
+
+      /* the dn is known to fit, but it may need to be padded */
+      exp=(uInt)(dn->exponent+DECIMAL32_Bias);	  /* bias exponent */
+      if (exp>DECIMAL32_Ehigh) {		  /* fold-down case */
+	pad=exp-DECIMAL32_Ehigh;
+	exp=DECIMAL32_Ehigh;			  /* [to maximum] */
+	status|=DEC_Clamped;
+	}
+
+      /* fastpath common case */
+      if (DECDPUN==3 && pad==0) {
+	targ=BIN2DPD[dn->lsu[0]];
+	if (dn->digits>3) targ|=(uInt)(BIN2DPD[dn->lsu[1]])<<10;
+	msd=(dn->digits==7 ? dn->lsu[2] : 0);
+	}
+       else { /* general case */
+	decDigitsToDPD(dn, &targ, pad);
+	/* save and clear the top digit */
+	msd=targ>>20;
+	targ&=0x000fffff;
+	}
+
+      /* create the combination field */
+      if (msd>=8) comb=0x18 | ((exp>>5) & 0x06) | (msd & 0x01);
+	     else comb=((exp>>3) & 0x18) | msd;
+      }
+    targ|=comb<<26;		   /* add combination field .. */
+    targ|=(exp&0x3f)<<20;	   /* .. and exponent continuation */
+    } /* finite */
+
+  if (dn->bits&DECNEG) targ|=0x80000000;  /* add sign bit */
+
+  /* now write to storage; this is endian */
+  pu=(uInt *)d32->bytes;	   /* overlay */
+  *pu=targ;			   /* directly store the int */
+
+  if (status!=0) decContextSetStatus(set, status); /* pass on status */
+  /* decimal32Show(d32); */
+  return d32;
+  } /* decimal32FromNumber */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal32ToNumber -- convert decimal32 to decNumber		      */
+/*   d32 is the source decimal32				      */
+/*   dn is the target number, with appropriate space		      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decimal32ToNumber(const decimal32 *d32, decNumber *dn) {
+  uInt msd;			   /* coefficient MSD */
+  uInt exp;			   /* exponent top two bits */
+  uInt comb;			   /* combination field */
+  uInt sour;			   /* source 32-bit */
+  const uInt *pu;		   /* work */
+
+  /* load source from storage; this is endian */
+  pu=(const uInt *)d32->bytes;	   /* overlay */
+  sour=*pu;			   /* directly load the int */
+
+  comb=(sour>>26)&0x1f;		   /* combination field */
+
+  decNumberZero(dn);		   /* clean number */
+  if (sour&0x80000000) dn->bits=DECNEG; /* set sign if negative */
+
+  msd=COMBMSD[comb];		   /* decode the combination field */
+  exp=COMBEXP[comb];		   /* .. */
+
+  if (exp==3) {			   /* is a special */
+    if (msd==0) {
+      dn->bits|=DECINF;
+      return dn;		   /* no coefficient needed */
+      }
+    else if (sour&0x02000000) dn->bits|=DECSNAN;
+    else dn->bits|=DECNAN;
+    msd=0;			   /* no top digit */
+    }
+   else {			   /* is a finite number */
+    dn->exponent=(exp<<6)+((sour>>20)&0x3f)-DECIMAL32_Bias; /* unbiased */
+    }
+
+  /* get the coefficient */
+  sour&=0x000fffff;		   /* clean coefficient continuation */
+  if (msd) {			   /* non-zero msd */
+    sour|=msd<<20;		   /* prefix to coefficient */
+    decDigitsFromDPD(dn, &sour, 3); /* process 3 declets */
+    return dn;
+    }
+  /* msd=0 */
+  if (!sour) return dn;		   /* easy: coefficient is 0 */
+  if (sour&0x000ffc00)		   /* need 2 declets? */
+    decDigitsFromDPD(dn, &sour, 2); /* process 2 declets */
+   else
+    decDigitsFromDPD(dn, &sour, 1); /* process 1 declet */
+  return dn;
+  } /* decimal32ToNumber */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* to-scientific-string -- conversion to numeric string		      */
+/* to-engineering-string -- conversion to numeric string	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   decimal32ToString(d32, string);				      */
+/*   decimal32ToEngString(d32, string);				      */
+/*								      */
+/*  d32 is the decimal32 format number to convert		      */
+/*  string is the string where the result will be laid out	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  string must be at least 24 characters			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  No error is possible, and no status can be set.		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+char * decimal32ToEngString(const decimal32 *d32, char *string){
+  decNumber dn;				/* work */
+  decimal32ToNumber(d32, &dn);
+  decNumberToEngString(&dn, string);
+  return string;
+  } /* decimal32ToEngString */
+
+char * decimal32ToString(const decimal32 *d32, char *string){
+  uInt msd;			   /* coefficient MSD */
+  Int  exp;			   /* exponent top two bits or full */
+  uInt comb;			   /* combination field */
+  char *cstart;			   /* coefficient start */
+  char *c;			   /* output pointer in string */
+  const uInt *pu;		   /* work */
+  const uByte *u;		   /* .. */
+  char *s, *t;			   /* .. (source, target) */
+  Int  dpd;			   /* .. */
+  Int  pre, e;			   /* .. */
+  uInt sour;			   /* source 32-bit */
+
+  /* load source from storage; this is endian */
+  pu=(const uInt *)d32->bytes;	   /* overlay */
+  sour=*pu;			   /* directly load the int */
+
+  c=string;			   /* where result will go */
+  if (((Int)sour)<0) *c++='-';	   /* handle sign */
+
+  comb=(sour>>26)&0x1f;		   /* combination field */
+  msd=COMBMSD[comb];		   /* decode the combination field */
+  exp=COMBEXP[comb];		   /* .. */
+
+  if (exp==3) {
+    if (msd==0) {		   /* infinity */
+      strcpy(c,	  "Inf");
+      strcpy(c+3, "inity");
+      return string;		   /* easy */
+      }
+    if (sour&0x02000000) *c++='s'; /* sNaN */
+    strcpy(c, "NaN");		   /* complete word */
+    c+=3;			   /* step past */
+    if ((sour&0x000fffff)==0) return string; /* zero payload */
+    /* otherwise drop through to add integer; set correct exp */
+    exp=0; msd=0;		   /* setup for following code */
+    }
+   else exp=(exp<<6)+((sour>>20)&0x3f)-DECIMAL32_Bias; /* unbiased */
+
+  /* convert 7 digits of significand to characters */
+  cstart=c;			   /* save start of coefficient */
+  if (msd) *c++='0'+(char)msd;	   /* non-zero most significant digit */
+
+  /* Now decode the declets.  After extracting each one, it is */
+  /* decoded to binary and then to a 4-char sequence by table lookup; */
+  /* the 4-chars are a 1-char length (significant digits, except 000 */
+  /* has length 0).  This allows us to left-align the first declet */
+  /* with non-zero content, then remaining ones are full 3-char */
+  /* length.  We use fixed-length memcpys because variable-length */
+  /* causes a subroutine call in GCC.  (These are length 4 for speed */
+  /* and are safe because the array has an extra terminator byte.) */
+  #define dpd2char u=&BIN2CHAR[DPD2BIN[dpd]*4];			  \
+		   if (c!=cstart) {memcpy(c, u+1, 4); c+=3;}	  \
+		    else if (*u)  {memcpy(c, u+4-*u, 4); c+=*u;}
+
+  dpd=(sour>>10)&0x3ff;		   /* declet 1 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=(sour)&0x3ff;		   /* declet 2 */
+  dpd2char;
+
+  if (c==cstart) *c++='0';	   /* all zeros -- make 0 */
+
+  if (exp==0) {			   /* integer or NaN case -- easy */
+    *c='\0';			   /* terminate */
+    return string;
+    }
+
+  /* non-0 exponent */
+  e=0;				   /* assume no E */
+  pre=c-cstart+exp;
+  /* [here, pre-exp is the digits count (==1 for zero)] */
+  if (exp>0 || pre<-5) {	   /* need exponential form */
+    e=pre-1;			   /* calculate E value */
+    pre=1;			   /* assume one digit before '.' */
+    } /* exponential form */
+
+  /* modify the coefficient, adding 0s, '.', and E+nn as needed */
+  s=c-1;			   /* source (LSD) */
+  if (pre>0) {			   /* ddd.ddd (plain), perhaps with E */
+    char *dotat=cstart+pre;
+    if (dotat<c) {		   /* if embedded dot needed... */
+      t=c;				/* target */
+      for (; s>=dotat; s--, t--) *t=*s; /* open the gap; leave t at gap */
+      *t='.';				/* insert the dot */
+      c++;				/* length increased by one */
+      }
+
+    /* finally add the E-part, if needed; it will never be 0, and has */
+    /* a maximum length of 3 digits (E-101 case) */
+    if (e!=0) {
+      *c++='E';			   /* starts with E */
+      *c++='+';			   /* assume positive */
+      if (e<0) {
+	*(c-1)='-';		   /* oops, need '-' */
+	e=-e;			   /* uInt, please */
+	}
+      u=&BIN2CHAR[e*4];		   /* -> length byte */
+      memcpy(c, u+4-*u, 4);	   /* copy fixed 4 characters [is safe] */
+      c+=*u;			   /* bump pointer appropriately */
+      }
+    *c='\0';			   /* add terminator */
+    /*printf("res %s\n", string); */
+    return string;
+    } /* pre>0 */
+
+  /* -5<=pre<=0: here for plain 0.ddd or 0.000ddd forms (can never have E) */
+  t=c+1-pre;
+  *(t+1)='\0';				/* can add terminator now */
+  for (; s>=cstart; s--, t--) *t=*s;	/* shift whole coefficient right */
+  c=cstart;
+  *c++='0';				/* always starts with 0. */
+  *c++='.';
+  for (; pre<0; pre++) *c++='0';	/* add any 0's after '.' */
+  /*printf("res %s\n", string); */
+  return string;
+  } /* decimal32ToString */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* to-number -- conversion from numeric string			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   decimal32FromString(result, string, set);			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  result  is the decimal32 format number which gets the result of   */
+/*	    the conversion					      */
+/*  *string is the character string which should contain a valid      */
+/*	    number (which may be a special value)		      */
+/*  set	    is the context					      */
+/*								      */
+/* The context is supplied to this routine is used for error handling */
+/* (setting of status and traps) and for the rounding mode, only.     */
+/* If an error occurs, the result will be a valid decimal32 NaN.      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decimal32 * decimal32FromString(decimal32 *result, const char *string,
+				decContext *set) {
+  decContext dc;			     /* work */
+  decNumber dn;				     /* .. */
+
+  decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL32); /* no traps, please */
+  dc.round=set->round;			      /* use supplied rounding */
+
+  decNumberFromString(&dn, string, &dc);     /* will round if needed */
+  decimal32FromNumber(result, &dn, &dc);
+  if (dc.status!=0) {			     /* something happened */
+    decContextSetStatus(set, dc.status);     /* .. pass it on */
+    }
+  return result;
+  } /* decimal32FromString */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal32IsCanonical -- test whether encoding is canonical	      */
+/*   d32 is the source decimal32				      */
+/*   returns 1 if the encoding of d32 is canonical, 0 otherwise	      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uint32_t decimal32IsCanonical(const decimal32 *d32) {
+  decNumber dn;				/* work */
+  decimal32 canon;			/* .. */
+  decContext dc;			/* .. */
+  decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL32);
+  decimal32ToNumber(d32, &dn);
+  decimal32FromNumber(&canon, &dn, &dc);/* canon will now be canonical */
+  return memcmp(d32, &canon, DECIMAL32_Bytes)==0;
+  } /* decimal32IsCanonical */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal32Canonical -- copy an encoding, ensuring it is canonical   */
+/*   d32 is the source decimal32				      */
+/*   result is the target (may be the same decimal32)		      */
+/*   returns result						      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decimal32 * decimal32Canonical(decimal32 *result, const decimal32 *d32) {
+  decNumber dn;				/* work */
+  decContext dc;			/* .. */
+  decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL32);
+  decimal32ToNumber(d32, &dn);
+  decimal32FromNumber(result, &dn, &dc);/* result will now be canonical */
+  return result;
+  } /* decimal32Canonical */
+
+#if DECTRACE || DECCHECK
+/* Macros for accessing decimal32 fields.  These assume the argument
+   is a reference (pointer) to the decimal32 structure, and the
+   decimal32 is in network byte order (big-endian) */
+/* Get sign */
+#define decimal32Sign(d)       ((unsigned)(d)->bytes[0]>>7)
+
+/* Get combination field */
+#define decimal32Comb(d)       (((d)->bytes[0] & 0x7c)>>2)
+
+/* Get exponent continuation [does not remove bias] */
+#define decimal32ExpCon(d)     ((((d)->bytes[0] & 0x03)<<4)	      \
+			     | ((unsigned)(d)->bytes[1]>>4))
+
+/* Set sign [this assumes sign previously 0] */
+#define decimal32SetSign(d, b) {				      \
+  (d)->bytes[0]|=((unsigned)(b)<<7);}
+
+/* Set exponent continuation [does not apply bias] */
+/* This assumes range has been checked and exponent previously 0; */
+/* type of exponent must be unsigned */
+#define decimal32SetExpCon(d, e) {				      \
+  (d)->bytes[0]|=(uint8_t)((e)>>4);				      \
+  (d)->bytes[1]|=(uint8_t)(((e)&0x0F)<<4);}
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal32Show -- display a decimal32 in hexadecimal [debug aid]    */
+/*   d32 -- the number to show					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Also shows sign/cob/expconfields extracted - valid bigendian only */
+void decimal32Show(const decimal32 *d32) {
+  char buf[DECIMAL32_Bytes*2+1];
+  Int i, j=0;
+
+  if (DECLITEND) {
+    for (i=0; i<DECIMAL32_Bytes; i++, j+=2) {
+      sprintf(&buf[j], "%02x", d32->bytes[3-i]);
+      }
+    printf(" D32> %s [S:%d Cb:%02x Ec:%02x] LittleEndian\n", buf,
+	   d32->bytes[3]>>7, (d32->bytes[3]>>2)&0x1f,
+	   ((d32->bytes[3]&0x3)<<4)| (d32->bytes[2]>>4));
+    }
+   else {
+    for (i=0; i<DECIMAL32_Bytes; i++, j+=2) {
+      sprintf(&buf[j], "%02x", d32->bytes[i]);
+      }
+    printf(" D32> %s [S:%d Cb:%02x Ec:%02x] BigEndian\n", buf,
+	   decimal32Sign(d32), decimal32Comb(d32), decimal32ExpCon(d32));
+    }
+  } /* decimal32Show */
+#endif
diff --git a/libdecnumber/dpd/decimal64.c b/libdecnumber/dpd/decimal64.c
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8256084e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libdecnumber/dpd/decimal64.c
@@ -0,0 +1,850 @@
+/* Decimal 64-bit format module for the decNumber C Library.
+   Copyright (C) 2005, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+   Contributed by IBM Corporation.  Author Mike Cowlishaw.
+
+   This file is part of GCC.
+
+   GCC is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under
+   the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free
+   Software Foundation; either version 2, or (at your option) any later
+   version.
+
+   In addition to the permissions in the GNU General Public License,
+   the Free Software Foundation gives you unlimited permission to link
+   the compiled version of this file into combinations with other
+   programs, and to distribute those combinations without any
+   restriction coming from the use of this file.  (The General Public
+   License restrictions do apply in other respects; for example, they
+   cover modification of the file, and distribution when not linked
+   into a combine executable.)
+
+   GCC is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY
+   WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or
+   FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU General Public License
+   for more details.
+
+   You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+   along with GCC; see the file COPYING.  If not, write to the Free
+   Software Foundation, 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA
+   02110-1301, USA.  */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Decimal 64-bit format module					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* This module comprises the routines for decimal64 format numbers.   */
+/* Conversions are supplied to and from decNumber and String.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* This is used when decNumber provides operations, either for all    */
+/* operations or as a proxy between decNumber and decSingle.	      */
+/*								      */
+/* Error handling is the same as decNumber (qv.).		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+#include <string.h>	      /* [for memset/memcpy] */
+#include <stdio.h>	      /* [for printf] */
+
+#include "libdecnumber/dconfig.h"
+#define	 DECNUMDIGITS 16      /* make decNumbers with space for 16 */
+#include "libdecnumber/decNumber.h"
+#include "libdecnumber/decNumberLocal.h"
+#include "libdecnumber/dpd/decimal64.h"
+
+/* Utility routines and tables [in decimal64.c]; externs for C++ */
+extern const uInt COMBEXP[32], COMBMSD[32];
+extern const uByte  BIN2CHAR[4001];
+
+extern void decDigitsFromDPD(decNumber *, const uInt *, Int);
+extern void decDigitsToDPD(const decNumber *, uInt *, Int);
+
+#if DECTRACE || DECCHECK
+void decimal64Show(const decimal64 *);		  /* for debug */
+extern void decNumberShow(const decNumber *);	  /* .. */
+#endif
+
+/* Useful macro */
+/* Clear a structure (e.g., a decNumber) */
+#define DEC_clear(d) memset(d, 0, sizeof(*d))
+
+/* define and include the tables to use for conversions */
+#define DEC_BIN2CHAR 1
+#define DEC_DPD2BIN  1
+#define DEC_BIN2DPD  1		   /* used for all sizes */
+#include "libdecnumber/decDPD.h"
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal64FromNumber -- convert decNumber to decimal64	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   ds is the target decimal64					      */
+/*   dn is the source number (assumed valid)			      */
+/*   set is the context, used only for reporting errors		      */
+/*								      */
+/* The set argument is used only for status reporting and for the     */
+/* rounding mode (used if the coefficient is more than DECIMAL64_Pmax */
+/* digits or an overflow is detected).	If the exponent is out of the */
+/* valid range then Overflow or Underflow will be raised.	      */
+/* After Underflow a subnormal result is possible.		      */
+/*								      */
+/* DEC_Clamped is set if the number has to be 'folded down' to fit,   */
+/* by reducing its exponent and multiplying the coefficient by a      */
+/* power of ten, or if the exponent on a zero had to be clamped.      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decimal64 * decimal64FromNumber(decimal64 *d64, const decNumber *dn,
+				decContext *set) {
+  uInt status=0;		   /* status accumulator */
+  Int ae;			   /* adjusted exponent */
+  decNumber  dw;		   /* work */
+  decContext dc;		   /* .. */
+  uInt *pu;			   /* .. */
+  uInt comb, exp;		   /* .. */
+  uInt targar[2]={0, 0};	   /* target 64-bit */
+  #define targhi targar[1]	   /* name the word with the sign */
+  #define targlo targar[0]	   /* and the other */
+
+  /* If the number has too many digits, or the exponent could be */
+  /* out of range then reduce the number under the appropriate */
+  /* constraints.  This could push the number to Infinity or zero, */
+  /* so this check and rounding must be done before generating the */
+  /* decimal64] */
+  ae=dn->exponent+dn->digits-1;		     /* [0 if special] */
+  if (dn->digits>DECIMAL64_Pmax		     /* too many digits */
+   || ae>DECIMAL64_Emax			     /* likely overflow */
+   || ae<DECIMAL64_Emin) {		     /* likely underflow */
+    decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64); /* [no traps] */
+    dc.round=set->round;		     /* use supplied rounding */
+    decNumberPlus(&dw, dn, &dc);	     /* (round and check) */
+    /* [this changes -0 to 0, so enforce the sign...] */
+    dw.bits|=dn->bits&DECNEG;
+    status=dc.status;			     /* save status */
+    dn=&dw;				     /* use the work number */
+    } /* maybe out of range */
+
+  if (dn->bits&DECSPECIAL) {			  /* a special value */
+    if (dn->bits&DECINF) targhi=DECIMAL_Inf<<24;
+     else {					  /* sNaN or qNaN */
+      if ((*dn->lsu!=0 || dn->digits>1)		  /* non-zero coefficient */
+       && (dn->digits<DECIMAL64_Pmax)) {	  /* coefficient fits */
+	decDigitsToDPD(dn, targar, 0);
+	}
+      if (dn->bits&DECNAN) targhi|=DECIMAL_NaN<<24;
+       else targhi|=DECIMAL_sNaN<<24;
+      } /* a NaN */
+    } /* special */
+
+   else { /* is finite */
+    if (decNumberIsZero(dn)) {		     /* is a zero */
+      /* set and clamp exponent */
+      if (dn->exponent<-DECIMAL64_Bias) {
+	exp=0;				     /* low clamp */
+	status|=DEC_Clamped;
+	}
+       else {
+	exp=dn->exponent+DECIMAL64_Bias;     /* bias exponent */
+	if (exp>DECIMAL64_Ehigh) {	     /* top clamp */
+	  exp=DECIMAL64_Ehigh;
+	  status|=DEC_Clamped;
+	  }
+	}
+      comb=(exp>>5) & 0x18;		/* msd=0, exp top 2 bits .. */
+      }
+     else {				/* non-zero finite number */
+      uInt msd;				/* work */
+      Int pad=0;			/* coefficient pad digits */
+
+      /* the dn is known to fit, but it may need to be padded */
+      exp=(uInt)(dn->exponent+DECIMAL64_Bias);	  /* bias exponent */
+      if (exp>DECIMAL64_Ehigh) {		  /* fold-down case */
+	pad=exp-DECIMAL64_Ehigh;
+	exp=DECIMAL64_Ehigh;			  /* [to maximum] */
+	status|=DEC_Clamped;
+	}
+
+      /* fastpath common case */
+      if (DECDPUN==3 && pad==0) {
+	uInt dpd[6]={0,0,0,0,0,0};
+	uInt i;
+	Int d=dn->digits;
+	for (i=0; d>0; i++, d-=3) dpd[i]=BIN2DPD[dn->lsu[i]];
+	targlo =dpd[0];
+	targlo|=dpd[1]<<10;
+	targlo|=dpd[2]<<20;
+	if (dn->digits>6) {
+	  targlo|=dpd[3]<<30;
+	  targhi =dpd[3]>>2;
+	  targhi|=dpd[4]<<8;
+	  }
+	msd=dpd[5];		   /* [did not really need conversion] */
+	}
+       else { /* general case */
+	decDigitsToDPD(dn, targar, pad);
+	/* save and clear the top digit */
+	msd=targhi>>18;
+	targhi&=0x0003ffff;
+	}
+
+      /* create the combination field */
+      if (msd>=8) comb=0x18 | ((exp>>7) & 0x06) | (msd & 0x01);
+	     else comb=((exp>>5) & 0x18) | msd;
+      }
+    targhi|=comb<<26;		   /* add combination field .. */
+    targhi|=(exp&0xff)<<18;	   /* .. and exponent continuation */
+    } /* finite */
+
+  if (dn->bits&DECNEG) targhi|=0x80000000; /* add sign bit */
+
+  /* now write to storage; this is now always endian */
+  pu=(uInt *)d64->bytes;	   /* overlay */
+  if (DECLITEND) {
+    pu[0]=targar[0];		   /* directly store the low int */
+    pu[1]=targar[1];		   /* then the high int */
+    }
+   else {
+    pu[0]=targar[1];		   /* directly store the high int */
+    pu[1]=targar[0];		   /* then the low int */
+    }
+
+  if (status!=0) decContextSetStatus(set, status); /* pass on status */
+  /* decimal64Show(d64); */
+  return d64;
+  } /* decimal64FromNumber */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal64ToNumber -- convert decimal64 to decNumber		      */
+/*   d64 is the source decimal64				      */
+/*   dn is the target number, with appropriate space		      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decNumber * decimal64ToNumber(const decimal64 *d64, decNumber *dn) {
+  uInt msd;			   /* coefficient MSD */
+  uInt exp;			   /* exponent top two bits */
+  uInt comb;			   /* combination field */
+  const uInt *pu;		   /* work */
+  Int  need;			   /* .. */
+  uInt sourar[2];		   /* source 64-bit */
+  #define sourhi sourar[1]	   /* name the word with the sign */
+  #define sourlo sourar[0]	   /* and the lower word */
+
+  /* load source from storage; this is endian */
+  pu=(const uInt *)d64->bytes;	   /* overlay */
+  if (DECLITEND) {
+    sourlo=pu[0];		   /* directly load the low int */
+    sourhi=pu[1];		   /* then the high int */
+    }
+   else {
+    sourhi=pu[0];		   /* directly load the high int */
+    sourlo=pu[1];		   /* then the low int */
+    }
+
+  comb=(sourhi>>26)&0x1f;	   /* combination field */
+
+  decNumberZero(dn);		   /* clean number */
+  if (sourhi&0x80000000) dn->bits=DECNEG; /* set sign if negative */
+
+  msd=COMBMSD[comb];		   /* decode the combination field */
+  exp=COMBEXP[comb];		   /* .. */
+
+  if (exp==3) {			   /* is a special */
+    if (msd==0) {
+      dn->bits|=DECINF;
+      return dn;		   /* no coefficient needed */
+      }
+    else if (sourhi&0x02000000) dn->bits|=DECSNAN;
+    else dn->bits|=DECNAN;
+    msd=0;			   /* no top digit */
+    }
+   else {			   /* is a finite number */
+    dn->exponent=(exp<<8)+((sourhi>>18)&0xff)-DECIMAL64_Bias; /* unbiased */
+    }
+
+  /* get the coefficient */
+  sourhi&=0x0003ffff;		   /* clean coefficient continuation */
+  if (msd) {			   /* non-zero msd */
+    sourhi|=msd<<18;		   /* prefix to coefficient */
+    need=6;			   /* process 6 declets */
+    }
+   else { /* msd=0 */
+    if (!sourhi) {		   /* top word 0 */
+      if (!sourlo) return dn;	   /* easy: coefficient is 0 */
+      need=3;			   /* process at least 3 declets */
+      if (sourlo&0xc0000000) need++; /* process 4 declets */
+      /* [could reduce some more, here] */
+      }
+     else {			   /* some bits in top word, msd=0 */
+      need=4;			   /* process at least 4 declets */
+      if (sourhi&0x0003ff00) need++; /* top declet!=0, process 5 */
+      }
+    } /*msd=0 */
+
+  decDigitsFromDPD(dn, sourar, need);	/* process declets */
+  return dn;
+  } /* decimal64ToNumber */
+
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* to-scientific-string -- conversion to numeric string		      */
+/* to-engineering-string -- conversion to numeric string	      */
+/*								      */
+/*   decimal64ToString(d64, string);				      */
+/*   decimal64ToEngString(d64, string);				      */
+/*								      */
+/*  d64 is the decimal64 format number to convert		      */
+/*  string is the string where the result will be laid out	      */
+/*								      */
+/*  string must be at least 24 characters			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  No error is possible, and no status can be set.		      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+char * decimal64ToEngString(const decimal64 *d64, char *string){
+  decNumber dn;				/* work */
+  decimal64ToNumber(d64, &dn);
+  decNumberToEngString(&dn, string);
+  return string;
+  } /* decimal64ToEngString */
+
+char * decimal64ToString(const decimal64 *d64, char *string){
+  uInt msd;			   /* coefficient MSD */
+  Int  exp;			   /* exponent top two bits or full */
+  uInt comb;			   /* combination field */
+  char *cstart;			   /* coefficient start */
+  char *c;			   /* output pointer in string */
+  const uInt *pu;		   /* work */
+  char *s, *t;			   /* .. (source, target) */
+  Int  dpd;			   /* .. */
+  Int  pre, e;			   /* .. */
+  const uByte *u;		   /* .. */
+
+  uInt sourar[2];		   /* source 64-bit */
+  #define sourhi sourar[1]	   /* name the word with the sign */
+  #define sourlo sourar[0]	   /* and the lower word */
+
+  /* load source from storage; this is endian */
+  pu=(const uInt *)d64->bytes;	   /* overlay */
+  if (DECLITEND) {
+    sourlo=pu[0];		   /* directly load the low int */
+    sourhi=pu[1];		   /* then the high int */
+    }
+   else {
+    sourhi=pu[0];		   /* directly load the high int */
+    sourlo=pu[1];		   /* then the low int */
+    }
+
+  c=string;			   /* where result will go */
+  if (((Int)sourhi)<0) *c++='-';   /* handle sign */
+
+  comb=(sourhi>>26)&0x1f;	   /* combination field */
+  msd=COMBMSD[comb];		   /* decode the combination field */
+  exp=COMBEXP[comb];		   /* .. */
+
+  if (exp==3) {
+    if (msd==0) {		   /* infinity */
+      strcpy(c,	  "Inf");
+      strcpy(c+3, "inity");
+      return string;		   /* easy */
+      }
+    if (sourhi&0x02000000) *c++='s'; /* sNaN */
+    strcpy(c, "NaN");		   /* complete word */
+    c+=3;			   /* step past */
+    if (sourlo==0 && (sourhi&0x0003ffff)==0) return string; /* zero payload */
+    /* otherwise drop through to add integer; set correct exp */
+    exp=0; msd=0;		   /* setup for following code */
+    }
+   else exp=(exp<<8)+((sourhi>>18)&0xff)-DECIMAL64_Bias;
+
+  /* convert 16 digits of significand to characters */
+  cstart=c;			   /* save start of coefficient */
+  if (msd) *c++='0'+(char)msd;	   /* non-zero most significant digit */
+
+  /* Now decode the declets.  After extracting each one, it is */
+  /* decoded to binary and then to a 4-char sequence by table lookup; */
+  /* the 4-chars are a 1-char length (significant digits, except 000 */
+  /* has length 0).  This allows us to left-align the first declet */
+  /* with non-zero content, then remaining ones are full 3-char */
+  /* length.  We use fixed-length memcpys because variable-length */
+  /* causes a subroutine call in GCC.  (These are length 4 for speed */
+  /* and are safe because the array has an extra terminator byte.) */
+  #define dpd2char u=&BIN2CHAR[DPD2BIN[dpd]*4];			  \
+		   if (c!=cstart) {memcpy(c, u+1, 4); c+=3;}	  \
+		    else if (*u)  {memcpy(c, u+4-*u, 4); c+=*u;}
+
+  dpd=(sourhi>>8)&0x3ff;		     /* declet 1 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=((sourhi&0xff)<<2) | (sourlo>>30);     /* declet 2 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=(sourlo>>20)&0x3ff;		     /* declet 3 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=(sourlo>>10)&0x3ff;		     /* declet 4 */
+  dpd2char;
+  dpd=(sourlo)&0x3ff;			     /* declet 5 */
+  dpd2char;
+
+  if (c==cstart) *c++='0';	   /* all zeros -- make 0 */
+
+  if (exp==0) {			   /* integer or NaN case -- easy */
+    *c='\0';			   /* terminate */
+    return string;
+    }
+
+  /* non-0 exponent */
+  e=0;				   /* assume no E */
+  pre=c-cstart+exp;
+  /* [here, pre-exp is the digits count (==1 for zero)] */
+  if (exp>0 || pre<-5) {	   /* need exponential form */
+    e=pre-1;			   /* calculate E value */
+    pre=1;			   /* assume one digit before '.' */
+    } /* exponential form */
+
+  /* modify the coefficient, adding 0s, '.', and E+nn as needed */
+  s=c-1;			   /* source (LSD) */
+  if (pre>0) {			   /* ddd.ddd (plain), perhaps with E */
+    char *dotat=cstart+pre;
+    if (dotat<c) {		   /* if embedded dot needed... */
+      t=c;				/* target */
+      for (; s>=dotat; s--, t--) *t=*s; /* open the gap; leave t at gap */
+      *t='.';				/* insert the dot */
+      c++;				/* length increased by one */
+      }
+
+    /* finally add the E-part, if needed; it will never be 0, and has */
+    /* a maximum length of 3 digits */
+    if (e!=0) {
+      *c++='E';			   /* starts with E */
+      *c++='+';			   /* assume positive */
+      if (e<0) {
+	*(c-1)='-';		   /* oops, need '-' */
+	e=-e;			   /* uInt, please */
+	}
+      u=&BIN2CHAR[e*4];		   /* -> length byte */
+      memcpy(c, u+4-*u, 4);	   /* copy fixed 4 characters [is safe] */
+      c+=*u;			   /* bump pointer appropriately */
+      }
+    *c='\0';			   /* add terminator */
+    /*printf("res %s\n", string); */
+    return string;
+    } /* pre>0 */
+
+  /* -5<=pre<=0: here for plain 0.ddd or 0.000ddd forms (can never have E) */
+  t=c+1-pre;
+  *(t+1)='\0';				/* can add terminator now */
+  for (; s>=cstart; s--, t--) *t=*s;	/* shift whole coefficient right */
+  c=cstart;
+  *c++='0';				/* always starts with 0. */
+  *c++='.';
+  for (; pre<0; pre++) *c++='0';	/* add any 0's after '.' */
+  /*printf("res %s\n", string); */
+  return string;
+  } /* decimal64ToString */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* to-number -- conversion from numeric string			      */
+/*								      */
+/*   decimal64FromString(result, string, set);			      */
+/*								      */
+/*  result  is the decimal64 format number which gets the result of   */
+/*	    the conversion					      */
+/*  *string is the character string which should contain a valid      */
+/*	    number (which may be a special value)		      */
+/*  set	    is the context					      */
+/*								      */
+/* The context is supplied to this routine is used for error handling */
+/* (setting of status and traps) and for the rounding mode, only.     */
+/* If an error occurs, the result will be a valid decimal64 NaN.      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decimal64 * decimal64FromString(decimal64 *result, const char *string,
+				decContext *set) {
+  decContext dc;			     /* work */
+  decNumber dn;				     /* .. */
+
+  decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64); /* no traps, please */
+  dc.round=set->round;			      /* use supplied rounding */
+
+  decNumberFromString(&dn, string, &dc);     /* will round if needed */
+
+  decimal64FromNumber(result, &dn, &dc);
+  if (dc.status!=0) {			     /* something happened */
+    decContextSetStatus(set, dc.status);     /* .. pass it on */
+    }
+  return result;
+  } /* decimal64FromString */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal64IsCanonical -- test whether encoding is canonical	      */
+/*   d64 is the source decimal64				      */
+/*   returns 1 if the encoding of d64 is canonical, 0 otherwise	      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+uint32_t decimal64IsCanonical(const decimal64 *d64) {
+  decNumber dn;				/* work */
+  decimal64 canon;			/* .. */
+  decContext dc;			/* .. */
+  decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64);
+  decimal64ToNumber(d64, &dn);
+  decimal64FromNumber(&canon, &dn, &dc);/* canon will now be canonical */
+  return memcmp(d64, &canon, DECIMAL64_Bytes)==0;
+  } /* decimal64IsCanonical */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal64Canonical -- copy an encoding, ensuring it is canonical   */
+/*   d64 is the source decimal64				      */
+/*   result is the target (may be the same decimal64)		      */
+/*   returns result						      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+decimal64 * decimal64Canonical(decimal64 *result, const decimal64 *d64) {
+  decNumber dn;				/* work */
+  decContext dc;			/* .. */
+  decContextDefault(&dc, DEC_INIT_DECIMAL64);
+  decimal64ToNumber(d64, &dn);
+  decimal64FromNumber(result, &dn, &dc);/* result will now be canonical */
+  return result;
+  } /* decimal64Canonical */
+
+#if DECTRACE || DECCHECK
+/* Macros for accessing decimal64 fields.  These assume the
+   argument is a reference (pointer) to the decimal64 structure,
+   and the decimal64 is in network byte order (big-endian) */
+/* Get sign */
+#define decimal64Sign(d)       ((unsigned)(d)->bytes[0]>>7)
+
+/* Get combination field */
+#define decimal64Comb(d)       (((d)->bytes[0] & 0x7c)>>2)
+
+/* Get exponent continuation [does not remove bias] */
+#define decimal64ExpCon(d)     ((((d)->bytes[0] & 0x03)<<6)	      \
+			     | ((unsigned)(d)->bytes[1]>>2))
+
+/* Set sign [this assumes sign previously 0] */
+#define decimal64SetSign(d, b) {				      \
+  (d)->bytes[0]|=((unsigned)(b)<<7);}
+
+/* Set exponent continuation [does not apply bias] */
+/* This assumes range has been checked and exponent previously 0; */
+/* type of exponent must be unsigned */
+#define decimal64SetExpCon(d, e) {				      \
+  (d)->bytes[0]|=(uint8_t)((e)>>6);				      \
+  (d)->bytes[1]|=(uint8_t)(((e)&0x3F)<<2);}
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decimal64Show -- display a decimal64 in hexadecimal [debug aid]    */
+/*   d64 -- the number to show					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Also shows sign/cob/expconfields extracted */
+void decimal64Show(const decimal64 *d64) {
+  char buf[DECIMAL64_Bytes*2+1];
+  Int i, j=0;
+
+  if (DECLITEND) {
+    for (i=0; i<DECIMAL64_Bytes; i++, j+=2) {
+      sprintf(&buf[j], "%02x", d64->bytes[7-i]);
+      }
+    printf(" D64> %s [S:%d Cb:%02x Ec:%02x] LittleEndian\n", buf,
+	   d64->bytes[7]>>7, (d64->bytes[7]>>2)&0x1f,
+	   ((d64->bytes[7]&0x3)<<6)| (d64->bytes[6]>>2));
+    }
+   else { /* big-endian */
+    for (i=0; i<DECIMAL64_Bytes; i++, j+=2) {
+      sprintf(&buf[j], "%02x", d64->bytes[i]);
+      }
+    printf(" D64> %s [S:%d Cb:%02x Ec:%02x] BigEndian\n", buf,
+	   decimal64Sign(d64), decimal64Comb(d64), decimal64ExpCon(d64));
+    }
+  } /* decimal64Show */
+#endif
+
+/* ================================================================== */
+/* Shared utility routines and tables				      */
+/* ================================================================== */
+/* define and include the conversion tables to use for shared code */
+#if DECDPUN==3
+  #define DEC_DPD2BIN 1
+#else
+  #define DEC_DPD2BCD 1
+#endif
+#include "libdecnumber/decDPD.h"
+
+/* The maximum number of decNumberUnits needed for a working copy of */
+/* the units array is the ceiling of digits/DECDPUN, where digits is */
+/* the maximum number of digits in any of the formats for which this */
+/* is used.  decimal128.h must not be included in this module, so, as */
+/* a very special case, that number is defined as a literal here. */
+#define DECMAX754   34
+#define DECMAXUNITS ((DECMAX754+DECDPUN-1)/DECDPUN)
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* Combination field lookup tables (uInts to save measurable work)    */
+/*								      */
+/*	COMBEXP - 2-bit most-significant-bits of exponent	      */
+/*		  [11 if an Infinity or NaN]			      */
+/*	COMBMSD - 4-bit most-significant-digit			      */
+/*		  [0=Infinity, 1=NaN if COMBEXP=11]		      */
+/*								      */
+/* Both are indexed by the 5-bit combination field (0-31)	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+const uInt COMBEXP[32]={0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+			1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
+			2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2,
+			0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3};
+const uInt COMBMSD[32]={0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
+			0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
+			0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
+			8, 9, 8, 9, 8, 9, 0, 1};
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decDigitsToDPD -- pack coefficient into DPD form		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn	  is the source number (assumed valid, max DECMAX754 digits)  */
+/*   targ is 1, 2, or 4-element uInt array, which the caller must     */
+/*	  have cleared to zeros					      */
+/*   shift is the number of 0 digits to add on the right (normally 0) */
+/*								      */
+/* The coefficient must be known small enough to fit.  The full	      */
+/* coefficient is copied, including the leading 'odd' digit.  This    */
+/* digit is retrieved and packed into the combination field by the    */
+/* caller.							      */
+/*								      */
+/* The target uInts are altered only as necessary to receive the      */
+/* digits of the decNumber.  When more than one uInt is needed, they  */
+/* are filled from left to right (that is, the uInt at offset 0 will  */
+/* end up with the least-significant digits).			      */
+/*								      */
+/* shift is used for 'fold-down' padding.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* No error is possible.					      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+#if DECDPUN<=4
+/* Constant multipliers for divide-by-power-of five using reciprocal */
+/* multiply, after removing powers of 2 by shifting, and final shift */
+/* of 17 [we only need up to **4] */
+static const uInt multies[]={131073, 26215, 5243, 1049, 210};
+/* QUOT10 -- macro to return the quotient of unit u divided by 10**n */
+#define QUOT10(u, n) ((((uInt)(u)>>(n))*multies[n])>>17)
+#endif
+void decDigitsToDPD(const decNumber *dn, uInt *targ, Int shift) {
+  Int  cut;		      /* work */
+  Int  n;		      /* output bunch counter */
+  Int  digits=dn->digits;     /* digit countdown */
+  uInt dpd;		      /* densely packed decimal value */
+  uInt bin;		      /* binary value 0-999 */
+  uInt *uout=targ;	      /* -> current output uInt */
+  uInt	uoff=0;		      /* -> current output offset [from right] */
+  const Unit *inu=dn->lsu;    /* -> current input unit */
+  Unit	uar[DECMAXUNITS];     /* working copy of units, iff shifted */
+  #if DECDPUN!=3	      /* not fast path */
+    Unit in;		      /* current unit */
+  #endif
+
+  if (shift!=0) {	      /* shift towards most significant required */
+    /* shift the units array to the left by pad digits and copy */
+    /* [this code is a special case of decShiftToMost, which could */
+    /* be used instead if exposed and the array were copied first] */
+    const Unit *source;			/* .. */
+    Unit  *target, *first;		/* .. */
+    uInt  next=0;			/* work */
+
+    source=dn->lsu+D2U(digits)-1;	/* where msu comes from */
+    target=uar+D2U(digits)-1+D2U(shift);/* where upper part of first cut goes */
+    cut=DECDPUN-MSUDIGITS(shift);	/* where to slice */
+    if (cut==0) {			/* unit-boundary case */
+      for (; source>=dn->lsu; source--, target--) *target=*source;
+      }
+     else {
+      first=uar+D2U(digits+shift)-1;	/* where msu will end up */
+      for (; source>=dn->lsu; source--, target--) {
+	/* split the source Unit and accumulate remainder for next */
+	#if DECDPUN<=4
+	  uInt quot=QUOT10(*source, cut);
+	  uInt rem=*source-quot*DECPOWERS[cut];
+	  next+=quot;
+	#else
+	  uInt rem=*source%DECPOWERS[cut];
+	  next+=*source/DECPOWERS[cut];
+	#endif
+	if (target<=first) *target=(Unit)next; /* write to target iff valid */
+	next=rem*DECPOWERS[DECDPUN-cut];       /* save remainder for next Unit */
+	}
+      } /* shift-move */
+    /* propagate remainder to one below and clear the rest */
+    for (; target>=uar; target--) {
+      *target=(Unit)next;
+      next=0;
+      }
+    digits+=shift;		   /* add count (shift) of zeros added */
+    inu=uar;			   /* use units in working array */
+    }
+
+  /* now densely pack the coefficient into DPD declets */
+
+  #if DECDPUN!=3		   /* not fast path */
+    in=*inu;			   /* current unit */
+    cut=0;			   /* at lowest digit */
+    bin=0;			   /* [keep compiler quiet] */
+  #endif
+
+  for(n=0; digits>0; n++) {	   /* each output bunch */
+    #if DECDPUN==3		   /* fast path, 3-at-a-time */
+      bin=*inu;			   /* 3 digits ready for convert */
+      digits-=3;		   /* [may go negative] */
+      inu++;			   /* may need another */
+
+    #else			   /* must collect digit-by-digit */
+      Unit dig;			   /* current digit */
+      Int j;			   /* digit-in-declet count */
+      for (j=0; j<3; j++) {
+	#if DECDPUN<=4
+	  Unit temp=(Unit)((uInt)(in*6554)>>16);
+	  dig=(Unit)(in-X10(temp));
+	  in=temp;
+	#else
+	  dig=in%10;
+	  in=in/10;
+	#endif
+	if (j==0) bin=dig;
+	 else if (j==1)	 bin+=X10(dig);
+	 else /* j==2 */ bin+=X100(dig);
+	digits--;
+	if (digits==0) break;	   /* [also protects *inu below] */
+	cut++;
+	if (cut==DECDPUN) {inu++; in=*inu; cut=0;}
+	}
+    #endif
+    /* here there are 3 digits in bin, or have used all input digits */
+
+    dpd=BIN2DPD[bin];
+
+    /* write declet to uInt array */
+    *uout|=dpd<<uoff;
+    uoff+=10;
+    if (uoff<32) continue;	   /* no uInt boundary cross */
+    uout++;
+    uoff-=32;
+    *uout|=dpd>>(10-uoff);	   /* collect top bits */
+    } /* n declets */
+  return;
+  } /* decDigitsToDPD */
+
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+/* decDigitsFromDPD -- unpack a format's coefficient		      */
+/*								      */
+/*   dn is the target number, with 7, 16, or 34-digit space.	      */
+/*   sour is a 1, 2, or 4-element uInt array containing only declets  */
+/*   declets is the number of (right-aligned) declets in sour to      */
+/*     be processed.  This may be 1 more than the obvious number in   */
+/*     a format, as any top digit is prefixed to the coefficient      */
+/*     continuation field.  It also may be as small as 1, as the      */
+/*     caller may pre-process leading zero declets.		      */
+/*								      */
+/* When doing the 'extra declet' case care is taken to avoid writing  */
+/* extra digits when there are leading zeros, as these could overflow */
+/* the units array when DECDPUN is not 3.			      */
+/*								      */
+/* The target uInts are used only as necessary to process declets     */
+/* declets into the decNumber.	When more than one uInt is needed,    */
+/* they are used from left to right (that is, the uInt at offset 0    */
+/* provides the least-significant digits).			      */
+/*								      */
+/* dn->digits is set, but not the sign or exponent.		      */
+/* No error is possible [the redundant 888 codes are allowed].	      */
+/* ------------------------------------------------------------------ */
+void decDigitsFromDPD(decNumber *dn, const uInt *sour, Int declets) {
+
+  uInt	dpd;			   /* collector for 10 bits */
+  Int	n;			   /* counter */
+  Unit	*uout=dn->lsu;		   /* -> current output unit */
+  Unit	*last=uout;		   /* will be unit containing msd */
+  const uInt *uin=sour;		   /* -> current input uInt */
+  uInt	uoff=0;			   /* -> current input offset [from right] */
+
+  #if DECDPUN!=3
+  uInt	bcd;			   /* BCD result */
+  uInt	nibble;			   /* work */
+  Unit	out=0;			   /* accumulator */
+  Int	cut=0;			   /* power of ten in current unit */
+  #endif
+  #if DECDPUN>4
+  uInt const *pow;		   /* work */
+  #endif
+
+  /* Expand the densely-packed integer, right to left */
+  for (n=declets-1; n>=0; n--) {   /* count down declets of 10 bits */
+    dpd=*uin>>uoff;
+    uoff+=10;
+    if (uoff>32) {		   /* crossed uInt boundary */
+      uin++;
+      uoff-=32;
+      dpd|=*uin<<(10-uoff);	   /* get waiting bits */
+      }
+    dpd&=0x3ff;			   /* clear uninteresting bits */
+
+  #if DECDPUN==3
+    if (dpd==0) *uout=0;
+     else {
+      *uout=DPD2BIN[dpd];	   /* convert 10 bits to binary 0-999 */
+      last=uout;		   /* record most significant unit */
+      }
+    uout++;
+    } /* n */
+
+  #else /* DECDPUN!=3 */
+    if (dpd==0) {		   /* fastpath [e.g., leading zeros] */
+      /* write out three 0 digits (nibbles); out may have digit(s) */
+      cut++;
+      if (cut==DECDPUN) {*uout=out; if (out) {last=uout; out=0;} uout++; cut=0;}
+      if (n==0) break;		   /* [as below, works even if MSD=0] */
+      cut++;
+      if (cut==DECDPUN) {*uout=out; if (out) {last=uout; out=0;} uout++; cut=0;}
+      cut++;
+      if (cut==DECDPUN) {*uout=out; if (out) {last=uout; out=0;} uout++; cut=0;}
+      continue;
+      }
+
+    bcd=DPD2BCD[dpd];		   /* convert 10 bits to 12 bits BCD */
+
+    /* now accumulate the 3 BCD nibbles into units */
+    nibble=bcd & 0x00f;
+    if (nibble) out=(Unit)(out+nibble*DECPOWERS[cut]);
+    cut++;
+    if (cut==DECDPUN) {*uout=out; if (out) {last=uout; out=0;} uout++; cut=0;}
+    bcd>>=4;
+
+    /* if this is the last declet and the remaining nibbles in bcd */
+    /* are 00 then process no more nibbles, because this could be */
+    /* the 'odd' MSD declet and writing any more Units would then */
+    /* overflow the unit array */
+    if (n==0 && !bcd) break;
+
+    nibble=bcd & 0x00f;
+    if (nibble) out=(Unit)(out+nibble*DECPOWERS[cut]);
+    cut++;
+    if (cut==DECDPUN) {*uout=out; if (out) {last=uout; out=0;} uout++; cut=0;}
+    bcd>>=4;
+
+    nibble=bcd & 0x00f;
+    if (nibble) out=(Unit)(out+nibble*DECPOWERS[cut]);
+    cut++;
+    if (cut==DECDPUN) {*uout=out; if (out) {last=uout; out=0;} uout++; cut=0;}
+    } /* n */
+  if (cut!=0) {				/* some more left over */
+    *uout=out;				/* write out final unit */
+    if (out) last=uout;			/* and note if non-zero */
+    }
+  #endif
+
+  /* here, last points to the most significant unit with digits; */
+  /* inspect it to get the final digits count -- this is essentially */
+  /* the same code as decGetDigits in decNumber.c */
+  dn->digits=(last-dn->lsu)*DECDPUN+1;	/* floor of digits, plus */
+					/* must be at least 1 digit */
+  #if DECDPUN>1
+  if (*last<10) return;			/* common odd digit or 0 */
+  dn->digits++;				/* must be 2 at least */
+  #if DECDPUN>2
+  if (*last<100) return;		/* 10-99 */
+  dn->digits++;				/* must be 3 at least */
+  #if DECDPUN>3
+  if (*last<1000) return;		/* 100-999 */
+  dn->digits++;				/* must be 4 at least */
+  #if DECDPUN>4
+  for (pow=&DECPOWERS[4]; *last>=*pow; pow++) dn->digits++;
+  #endif
+  #endif
+  #endif
+  #endif
+  return;
+  } /*decDigitsFromDPD */